Mass spectrometry
Mass spectrometry differs from the types of spectroscopy previously discussed because the molecular information that the technique provides does not depend on absorption of electromagnetic radiation. In a mass spectrometer, molecules are converted to charged fragments called ions, which are then separated according to their masses. The chart that records the masses of the fragments together with a measure of their relative abundance is known as a mass spectrum. From the masses and abundance of the peaks in a mass spectrum, it is often possible to determine the exact mass of the molecule being analyzed and to obtain clues about molecular structure. Today chemists can use one of several different types of mass spectrometer. A brief description of electron-ionization mass spectrometry, widely used for the analysis of relatively small molecules, illustrates the general principles.
In simple terms, a mass spectrometer (all components of which operate in a high vacuum) consists of an inlet chamber into which the compound to be analyzed is introduced and vaporized. The gaseous molecules then pass into an ionization chamber, where they are bombarded by a beam of high-energy electrons. The electron beam generates, among other things, a positively charged molecule known as a molecular ion, which results from the removal of one electron from the molecule. The molecular ion can subsequently break apart into smaller fragments. The positively charged fragments (which for simplicity are considered here to bear only a single positive charge) are then accelerated by an electric field and directed into a mass analyzer. The mass analyzer contains a strong magnetic field, through which the molecular ions must pass. As the ions pass through the magnetic field, they are deflected into a curved path that is dependent on both their charge and mass. Ions of different mass travel along a different trajectory before reaching a detector, which records the intensities and masses of the ions that strike it. The mass spectrum that is recorded shows the mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) along the horizontal axis and ion abundance along the vertical axis. For ions bearing a single positive charge, z equals 1, and the horizontal axis shows the masses of the fragments directly.
The mass spectrum of the ketone 2-butanone serves as an example. The strongest peak in the spectrum is known as the base peak, and its intensity is arbitrarily set at a value of 100. The peak at m/z= 72 is the molecular ion and as such gives the molecular mass of the molecule. In high-resolution mass spectrometry, the mass of the molecular ion can be measured to an accuracy of 4 ppm. In such an instrument, the molecular ion of 2-butanone would appear at m/z= 72.0575, which would unambiguously establish its molecular formula as C4H8O. High-resolution mass spectrometry is an excellent method for determining the molecular formulas of organic compounds.
Valuable information about molecular structure also can be obtained from the mass of the fragments present in the mass spectrum. Various functional groups cause molecules to break apart in characteristic ways. Ketones, for example, usually break apart at the bond in which the alkane chain is joined to the carbonyl group. Loss of the CH3 group (m/z= 15) from 2-butanone generates the fragment at m/z= 57. Loss of the heavier CH3CH2group (m/z= 29) from 2-butanone generates the base peak at m/z= 43.
The spectroscopic techniques discussed above are central to the modern study of chemistry; they allow chemists to determine the specific molecular architecture of many organic substances. For very complicated molecules, such as many natural products that occur in living organisms, even a complete set of spectra is insufficient to allow an unambiguous structural assignment. Molecular structure can then be determined only by a step-by-step synthesis of the molecule, followed by confirmation that the synthetic molecule is identical to the natural one.
Reaction types
The electronic features of functional groups are responsible for the types of reactions that are characteristic of each group (see above Functional groups). Because there is a great deal of similarity in the electronic characteristics of the different functional groups, there is a corresponding similarity in the types of reaction that different groups undergo. Just as the properties of the multitude of organic compounds are made more comprehensible by considering the reactions of a specific functional group, so too can the plethora of organic reactions be made more understandable by categorization into common types of chemical reaction, such as substitution, elimination, addition, hydrolysis, condensation, and acid-base and oxidation-reduction reactions.
Substitution reactions
The simple replacement of one atom or group of atoms in a molecule by a second atom or group of atoms is called a substitution reaction. An illustrative example is the conversion of benzyl bromide to benzyl alcohol, using a solution of sodium hydroxide in water.
In this reaction the bromine atom of the benzyl bromide has been replaced by the hydroxyl group of the sodium hydroxide. The displaced bromine atom joins with the sodium ion to form the inorganic by-product sodium bromide, but the focus in organic reactions is always on the changes that occur to the organic molecules. Substitution reactions can also lead to the formation of cyclic compounds, as in the production of a cyclic ether from a di-functional compound containing both a halide atom and a hydroxyl group.
Elimination reactions
The formation of new bonds in a molecule by the removal of atoms takes place in an elimination reaction. These reactions are often responsible for the formation of double bonds, as in the formation of an alkene from an alcohol by the action of concentrated sulfuric acid, and for the thermal elimination of hydrogen chloride to make chloroethene.
Addition reactions
The addition of one molecule to another to give a single new molecule constitutes an important class of reactions. Illustrative is the addition of chlorine to ethylene to give the dichloroethane used for the industrial production of vinyl chloride. Alcohols are commonly made by the addition of water to alkenes, as in the preparation of 2-propanol.
Hydrolysis
The scission (or cleavage) of a molecule by reaction with water, with insertion of the elements of water into the final products, is called hydrolysis. An example is the acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of ethyl acetate.
This reaction is typical of reversible reactions that do not go to completion. When one mole (the quantity with a weight in grams numerically equal to the molecular weight) of ethyl acetate and one mole of water react, only about one-third of the ethyl acetate is converted to acetic acid and ethyl alcohol. Since the products can also react by a reverse reaction to reform starting materials, the reaction is shown with two single-headed arrows, one pointing to products and the other to starting materials. Several effective methods can be employed to increase the yield of the desired reaction products.
Condensation
The formation of a single bond between two molecules, or two parts of the same molecule, accompanied by the elimination of water (or another small molecule such as an alcohol) is a condensation reaction. Many polymerization reactions are condensation reactions. For example, the polymer nylon-6,6 is produced by the repeated condensation of hexanedioic acid with hexamethylenediamine.
