disaster epidemiology

disaster epidemiology, the study of the effects of disasters on human populations, mainly by the use of data collection and statistical analyses and particularly with the aim of predicting the impacts of future disasters. Insight into how a disaster can impact the health and function of populations enables experts to quickly identify needs, plan appropriate responses, gather necessary resources, and facilitate recovery activities.

The epidemiologic investigation of disaster events focuses on two approaches. The first is the study of the underlying causes of the disaster. This may focus on the event itself or the mortality and morbidity associated with the event. Learning as much as possible about the reasons for disasters is important for developing population-based prevention activities in the future. The second approach is to use epidemiologic methods to investigate mechanisms for alleviating the burden of a disaster once it occurs. The most direct applications of epidemiology in this situation are the establishment of surveillance systems to identify injuries and the possible emergence of communicable and mental health diseases, the deployment of rapid needs assessment to identify and prioritize solutions to existing problems, and analytical studies of risk factors and the natural history of health events

Defining and classifying disasters

Historically, in many areas, disasters were viewed from a fatalistic perspective, and even in the 21st century many people still believed disasters were simply a feature of life. Research had shown, however, that with proper preparations—from ensuring the safe construction of buildings and dwellings to providing the public with educational materials and allocating necessary resources—societies can effectively mitigate the circumstances arising from a disaster. Hence, from a public health perspective, disasters are defined based on their impacts to societies. In general, a disaster is considered to be an event that disrupts the ability of a society to function, resulting in widespread losses of human life or extensive damage to property or the environment. The disruption and suffering exceeds local response resources, and as a result, the society requires aid from external sources to cope and recover.

The frequency of an event and the magnitude of its impact influence whether an event is regarded as a disaster. Events with a low frequency in occurrence and a high magnitude of impact (in terms of large economic and human losses) are usually declared disasters by government authorities. Events with a high frequency of occurrence and a low magnitude of impact might be regarded as normal or routine events. The determination of what levels are high and what levels are low, however, can be subjective and may vary by culture, prior history with the event, and ability to respond to the event. Thus, a disaster of similar characteristics might be viewed differently in different settings. Efforts to standardize the definition of a disaster, however, have helped moderate calls for external assistance, ensuring that affected societies receive necessary amounts of aid.

Many different types of events can lead to situations that overwhelm local institutions and require external assistance. As a result, crude classification schemes for disasters have been incorporated into the discipline of disaster epidemiology. Most commonly, disasters are classified as either natural or human-made. Natural disasters include situations brought about by extreme climatological, geological, or ecological events. Droughts, floods, windstorms, earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanic eruptions are common natural disasters. Human-made disasters can include industrial accidents and acts of terrorism. The displacement of large populations as a result of war has also been identified as a form of disaster.

The impact of disasters

A proper assessment of the health impacts of disasters requires a comprehensive look at the totality of disaster events. Resources to obtain this perspective include national and international disaster databases. A key international database is the EM-DAT, which is maintained by the Center for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) in Brussels, Belgium. Researchers can use such databases to analyze and compare disaster data through history, though this can be difficult, since the definition of disasters has varied over time.

Nonetheless, analyses have revealed that the risk for disaster occurrence or the risk for heightened mortality in the event of disaster are shaped by population growth, population density, environmental degradation, poor or unplanned urbanization, and poverty. Data indicate that the greatest degree of mortality and morbidity from disasters occur in low- and middle-income countries. The degree of calamity associated with a disaster is also associated with the population density of the area affected and the level of vulnerability in that area. Events occurring in areas with dense populations typically result in greater harm (by absolute numbers) than events in less dense areas. Similarly, hazards occurring in areas made vulnerable by poor economic development, environmental degradation, or urban planning result in greater harm than those occurring in stable areas. Vulnerable areas include river watersheds, undefended coastal plains, and hillsides prone to landslides. Many low-income countries have large populations living on vulnerable ground. The intersection of a hazard, high population, and high vulnerability can result in a major catastrophe.

Health and disasters

Disasters can influence human health in many ways. The largest impact of most disasters lies in the injuries that occur from the event itself. In general, disaster events that involve water (such as floods, storm surges, and tsunamis) are the most significant in terms of mortality. The frequency of mortality in these events exceeds the frequency of nonfatal injury. In contrast, earthquakes and events associated with high winds tend to exhibit more injuries than deaths. Injury patterns related to human-made disasters are much more variable in the ratio of deaths to nonfatal injuries.

Health concerns also arise during the aftermath of a disaster. In most disaster situations, outbreaks of infectious disease are not the primary concern in the short term. The risk for outbreaks will not lie immediately after an event, but rather one to two weeks later and only if substantial population displacement and the disruption of health services occur. What is often the primary concern in the aftermath of a disaster is the impact of population displacement. Natural and human-made disasters often destroy sizeable amounts of property, including houses and farms. From a health perspective, one is concerned with the effect of having little or no shelter (environmental exposure) foremost and overcrowding in available shelters. In the long term, there may also be a health concern over the ability to feed the population affected adequately.

Mental health consequences of a disaster are another important health issue that carries both short-term and long-term implications. Studies have demonstrated higher frequencies of depression and post-traumatic stress disorder following major disasters.

Epidemiologic response to disasters

Epidemiology and the related methods of epidemiological practice are valuable components to disaster response and disaster planning. The main goal of epidemiology in a disaster situation is to measure and describe the frequency of health events related to the disaster, to identify the factors contributing to these effects, and to identify potential interventions to alleviate the impact of these issues. Rapid needs assessments and surveillance activities are common practices undertaken in the aftermath of a disaster to address this broad goal. Further epidemiological studies may be conducted to identify risk factors, prioritize health interventions, match resources to needs, or to evaluate an intervention’s effectiveness.

Epidemiology can contribute to the understanding of the management and preparedness for disasters. This contribution can be directed at identifying and assessing factors related to the development of disasters, the public health response to disasters, an examination of the health effects of disasters, and the identification of groups in the population at particular risk for adverse health effects. Disasters are complex events, and practitioners in disaster epidemiology activities face many challenges, including establishing communications with professionals from different disciplines, dealing with constraints on the collection and analysis of data, and working in the context of changing social and political environments.

The analysis of past disasters has provided important clues to the reduction of mortality and morbidity in future events. Unique patterns of death and injury have been noted among different classifications of disasters. In long-term analyses, researchers are able to gain understanding of potential chronic health effects of disasters.