Ultraviolet radiation
The German physicist Johann Wilhelm Ritter, having learned of Herschel’s discovery of infrared waves, looked beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum of the Sun and found (in 1801) that there exist invisible rays that darken silver chloride even more efficiently than visible light. This spectral region extending between visible light and X-rays is designated ultraviolet. Sources of this form of electromagnetic radiation are hot objects like the Sun, synchrotron radiation sources, mercury or xenon arc lamps, and gaseous discharge tubes filled with gas atoms (e.g., mercury, deuterium, or hydrogen) that have internal electron energy levels which correspond to the photons of ultraviolet light.
When ultraviolet light strikes certain materials, it causes them to fluoresce—i.e., they emit electromagnetic radiation of lower energy, such as visible light. The spectrum of fluorescent light is characteristic of a material’s composition and thus can be used for screening minerals, detecting bacteria in spoiled food, identifying pigments, or detecting forgeries of artworks and other objects (the aged surfaces of ancient marble sculptures, for instance, fluoresce yellow-green, whereas a freshly cut marble surface fluoresces bright violet).
Optical instruments for the ultraviolet region are made of special materials, such as quartz, certain silicates, and metal fluorides, which are transparent at least in the near ultraviolet. Far-ultraviolet radiation is absorbed by nearly all gases and materials and thus requires reflection optics in vacuum chambers.
Ultraviolet radiation is detected by photographic plates and by means of the photoelectric effect in photomultiplier tubes. Also, ultraviolet radiation can be converted to visible light by fluorescence before detection.
The relatively high energy of ultraviolet light gives rise to certain photochemical reactions. This characteristic is exploited to produce cyanotype impressions on fabrics and for blueprinting design drawings. Here, the fabric or paper is treated with a mixture of chemicals that react upon exposure to ultraviolet light to form an insoluble blue compound. Electronic excitations caused by ultraviolet radiation also produce changes in the colour and transparency of photosensitive and photochromic glasses. Photochemical and photostructural changes in certain polymers constitute the basis for photolithography and the processing of the microelectronic circuits.
Although invisible to the eyes of humans and most vertebrates, near-ultraviolet light can be seen by many insects. Butterflies and many flowers that appear to have identical colour patterns under visible light are distinctly different when viewed under the ultraviolet rays perceptible to insects.
An important difference between ultraviolet light and electromagnetic radiation of lower frequencies is the ability of the former to ionize, meaning that it can knock an electron out from atoms and molecules. All high-frequency electromagnetic radiation beyond the visible—i.e., ultraviolet light, X-rays, and gamma rays—is ionizing and therefore harmful to body tissues, living cells, and DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). The harmful effects of ultraviolet light to humans and larger animals are mitigated by the fact that this form of radiation does not penetrate much further than the skin.
The body of a sunbather is struck by 1021 photons every second, and 1 percent of these, or more than a billion billion per second, are photons of ultraviolet radiation. Tanning and natural body pigments help to protect the skin to some degree, preventing the destruction of skin cells by ultraviolet light. Nevertheless, overexposure to the ultraviolet component of sunlight can cause skin cancer, cataracts of the eyes, and damage to the body’s immune system. Fortunately, a layer of ozone (O3) in the stratosphere absorbs the most-damaging ultraviolet rays, which have wavelengths of 2000 and 2900 angstroms (one angstrom [Å] = 10−10 metre), and attenuates those with wavelengths between 2900 and 3150 Å. Without this protective layer of ozone, life on Earth would not be possible. The ozone layer is produced at an altitude of about 10 to 50 km (6 to 30 miles) above Earth’s surface by a reaction between upward-diffusing molecular oxygen (O2) and downward-diffusing ionized atomic oxygen (O+). In the late 20th century this life-protecting stratospheric ozone layer was reduced by chlorine atoms in chlorofluorocarbon (or Freon) gases released into the atmosphere by aerosol propellants, air-conditioner coolants, solvents used in the manufacture of electronic components, and other sources. Limits were placed on the sale of ozone-depleting chemicals, and the ozone layer was expected to recover eventually.
Ionized atomic oxygen, nitrogen, and nitric oxide are produced in the upper atmosphere by absorption of solar ultraviolet radiation. This ionized region is the ionosphere, which affects radio communications and reflects and absorbs radio waves of frequencies below 40 MHz.
X-rays
The German physicist Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovered X-rays in 1895 by accident while studying cathode rays in a low-pressure gas discharge tube. (A few years later J.J. Thomson of England showed that cathode rays were electrons emitted from the negative electrode [cathode] of the discharge tube.) Röntgen noticed the fluorescence of a barium platinocyanide screen that happened to lie near the discharge tube. He traced the source of the hitherto undetected form of radiation to the point where the cathode rays hit the wall of the discharge tube, and he mistakenly concluded from his inability to observe reflection or refraction that his new rays were unrelated to light. Because of his uncertainty about their nature, he called them X-radiation. This early failure can be attributed to the very short wavelengths of X-rays (10−8 to 10−11 cm), which correspond to photon energies from 200 to 100,000 eV. In 1912 another German physicist, Max von Laue, realized that the regular arrangement of atoms in crystals should provide a natural grating of the right spacing (about 10−8 cm) to produce an interference pattern on a photographic plate when X-rays pass through such a crystal. The success of this experiment, carried out by Walter Friedrich and Paul Knipping, not only identified X-rays with electromagnetic radiation but also initiated the use of X-rays for studying the detailed atomic structure of crystals. The interference of X-rays diffracted in certain directions from crystals in so-called X-ray diffractometers, in turn, permits the dissection of X-rays into their different frequencies, just as a prism diffracts and spreads the various colours of light. The spectral composition and characteristic frequencies of X-rays emitted by a given X-ray source can thus be measured. As in optical spectroscopy, the X-ray photons emitted correspond to the differences of the internal electronic energies in atoms and molecules. Because of their much higher energies, however, X-ray photons are associated with the inner-shell electrons close to the atomic nuclei, whereas optical absorption and emission are related to the outermost electrons in atoms or in materials in general. Since the outer electrons are used for chemical bonding while the energies of inner-shell electrons remain essentially unaffected by atomic bonding, the identity and quantity of elements that make up a material are more accurately determined by the emission, absorption, or fluorescence of X-rays than of photons of visible or ultraviolet light.
The contrast between body parts in medical X-ray photographs (radiographs) is produced by the different scattering and absorption of X-rays by bones and tissues. Within months of Röntgen’s discovery of X-rays and his first X-ray photograph of his wife’s hand, this form of electromagnetic radiation became indispensable in orthopedic and dental medicine. The use of X-rays for obtaining images of the body’s interior has undergone considerable development over the years and has culminated in the highly sophisticated procedure known as computed tomography (CAT; see radiation).
Notwithstanding their usefulness in medical diagnosis, the ability of X-rays to ionize atoms and molecules and their penetrating power make them a potential health hazard. Exposure of body cells and tissue to large doses of such ionizing radiation can result in abnormalities in DNA that may lead to cancer and birth defects. (For a detailed treatment of the effects of X-rays and other forms of ionizing radiation on human health and the levels of such radiation encountered in daily life, see radiation: Biological effects of ionizing radiation.)
X-rays are produced in X-ray tubes by the deceleration of energetic electrons (bremsstrahlung) as they hit a metal target or by accelerating electrons moving at relativistic velocities in circular orbits (synchrotron radiation; see above Continuous spectra of electromagnetic radiation). They are detected by their photochemical action in photographic emulsions or by their ability to ionize gas atoms. Every X-ray photon produces a burst of electrons and ions, resulting in a current pulse. By counting the rate of such current pulses per second, the intensity of a flux of X-rays can be measured. Instruments used for this purpose are called Geiger counters.
X-ray astronomy has revealed very strong sources of X-rays in deep space. In the Milky Way Galaxy, of which the solar system is a part, the most-intense sources are certain double-star systems in which one of the two stars is thought to be either a compact neutron star or a black hole. The ionized gas of the circling companion star falls by gravitation into the compact star, generating X-rays that may be more than 1,000 times as intense as the total amount of light emitted by the Sun. At the moment of their explosion, supernovae emit a good fraction of their energy in a burst of X-rays.