ether

ether, any of a class of organic compounds characterized by an oxygen atom bonded to two alkyl or aryl groups. Ethers are similar in structure to alcohols, and both ethers and alcohols are similar in structure to water. In an alcohol one hydrogen atom of a water molecule is replaced by an alkyl group, whereas in an ether both hydrogen atoms are replaced by alkyl or aryl groups.

At room temperature, ethers are pleasant-smelling colourless liquids. Relative to alcohols, ethers are generally less dense, are less soluble in water, and have lower boiling points. They are relatively unreactive, and as a result they are useful as solvents for fats, oils, waxes, perfumes, resins, dyes, gums, and hydrocarbons. Vapours of certain ethers are used as insecticides, miticides, and fumigants for soil.

Ethers are also important in medicine and pharmacology, especially for use as anesthetics. For example, ethyl ether (CH₃CH₂―O―CH₂CH₃), simply known as ether, was first used as a surgical anesthetic in 1842. Codeine, a potent pain-relieving drug, is the methyl ether of morphine. Because ether is highly flammable, it has largely been replaced by less-flammable anesthetics, including nitrous oxide (N₂O) and halothane (CF₃―CHClBr).

Ethyl ether is an excellent solvent for extractions and for a wide variety of chemical reactions. It is also used as a volatile starting fluid for diesel engines and gasoline engines in cold weather. Dimethyl ether is used as a spray propellant and refrigerant. Methyl t-butyl ether (MTBE) is a gasoline additive that boosts the octane number and reduces the amount of nitrogen-oxide pollutants in the exhaust. The ethers of ethylene glycol are used as solvents and plasticizers.

Nomenclature of ethers

Common names of ethers simply give the names of the two alkyl groups bonded to oxygen and add the word ether. The current practice is to list the alkyl groups in alphabetical order (t-butyl methyl ether), but older names often list the alkyl groups in increasing order of size (methyl t-butyl ether). If just one alkyl group is described in the name, it implies two identical groups, as in ethyl ether for diethyl ether.

Systematic (IUPAC) names for ethers use the more complex group as the root name, with the oxygen atom and the smaller group named as an alkoxy substituent. Examples given above are ethoxyethane (diethyl ether), methoxyethane (methyl ethyl ether), 2-methoxy-2-methylpropane (MTBE), and phenoxybenzene (diphenyl ether). The IUPAC nomenclature works well for compounds with additional functional groups, because the other functional groups can be described in the root name.

Physical properties of ethers

Ethers lack the hydroxyl groups of alcohols. Without the strongly polarized O―H bond, ether molecules cannot engage in hydrogen bonding with each other. Ethers do have nonbonding electron pairs on their oxygen atoms, however, and they can form hydrogen bonds with other molecules (alcohols, amines, etc.) that have O―H or N―H bonds. The ability to form hydrogen bonds with other compounds makes ethers particularly good solvents for a wide variety of organic compounds and a surprisingly large number of inorganic compounds. (For more information about hydrogen bonding, see chemical bonding: Intermolecular forces.)

Click Here to see full-size tableBecause ether molecules cannot engage in hydrogen bonding with each other, they have much lower boiling points than do alcohols with similar molecular weights. For example, the boiling point of diethyl ether (C₄H₁₀O, molecular weight [MW] 74) is 35 °C (95 °F), but the boiling point of 1-butanol (or n-butyl alcohol; C₄H₁₀O, MW 74) is 118 °C (244 °F). In fact, the boiling points of ethers are much closer to those of alkanes with similar molecular weights; the boiling point of pentane (C₅H₁₂, MW 72) is 36 °C (97 °F), close to the boiling point of diethyl ether.

Complexes of ethers with reagents

The unique properties of ethers (i.e., that they are strongly polar, with nonbonding electron pairs but no hydroxyl group) enhance the formation and use of many reagents. For example, Grignard reagents cannot form unless an ether is present to share its lone pair of electrons with the magnesium atom. Complexation of the magnesium atom stabilizes the Grignard reagent and helps to keep it in solution.

Electron-deficient reagents are also stabilized by ethers. For example, borane (BH₃) is a useful reagent for making alcohols. Pure borane exists as its dimer, diborane (B₂H₆), a toxic gas that is inconvenient and hazardous to use. Borane forms stable complexes with ethers, however, and it is often supplied and used as its liquid complex with tetrahydrofuran (THF). Similarly, gaseous boron trifluoride (BF₃) is more easily used as its liquid complex with diethyl ether, called BF₃ etherate, rather than as the toxic, corrosive gas.

Crown ethers are specialized cyclic polyethers that surround specific metal ions to form crown-shaped cyclic complexes. They are named by using the parent name crown preceded by a number describing the size of the ring and followed by the number of oxygen atoms in the ring. In the crown-ether complex, the metal ion fits into the cavity of the crown ether and is solvated by the oxygen atoms. The exterior of the complex is nonpolar, masked by the alkyl groups of the crown ether. Many inorganic salts can be made soluble in nonpolar organic solvents by complexing them with an appropriate crown ether. Potassium ions (K⁺) are complexed by 18-crown-6 (an 18-membered ring with 6 oxygen atoms), sodium ions (Na⁺) by 15-crown-5 (15-membered ring, 5 oxygens), and lithium ions (Li⁺) by 12-crown-4 (12-membered ring, 4 oxygens).

In each of these crown-ether complexes, only the cation is solvated by the crown ether. In a nonpolar solvent, the anion is not solvated but is dragged into solution by the cation. These “bare” anions in nonpolar solvents can be much more reactive than they are in polar solvents that solvate and shield the anion. For example, the 18-crown-6 complex of potassium permanganate, KMnO₄, dissolves in benzene to give “purple benzene,” with a bare MnO₄⁻ ion acting as a powerful oxidizing agent. Similarly, the bare ⁻OH ion in sodium hydroxide (NaOH), made soluble in hexane (C₆H₁₄) by 15-crown-5, is a more powerful base and nucleophile than it is when solvated by polar solvents such as water or an alcohol.