ferromagnetism

ferromagnetism, physical phenomenon in which certain electrically uncharged materials strongly attract others. Two materials found in nature, lodestone (or magnetite, an oxide of iron, Fe₃O₄) and iron, have the ability to acquire such attractive powers, and they are often called natural ferromagnets. They were discovered more than 2,000 years ago, and all early scientific studies of magnetism were conducted on these materials. Today, ferromagnetic materials are used in a wide variety of devices essential to everyday life—e.g., electric motors and generators, transformers, telephones, and loudspeakers.

Ferromagnetism is a kind of magnetism that is associated with iron, cobalt, nickel, and some alloys or compounds containing one or more of these elements. It also occurs in gadolinium and a few other rare-earth elements. In contrast to other substances, ferromagnetic materials are magnetized easily, and in strong magnetic fields the magnetization approaches a definite limit called saturation. When a field is applied and then removed, the magnetization does not return to its original value; this phenomenon is referred to as hysteresis. When heated to a certain temperature called the Curie point, which is different for each substance, ferromagnetic materials lose their characteristic properties and cease to be magnetic; however, they become ferromagnetic again on cooling.

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magnetism: Ferromagnetism

The magnetism in ferromagnetic materials is caused by the alignment patterns of their constituent atoms, which act as elementary electromagnets. Some species of atoms possess a magnetic moment; that is, such an atom itself is an elementary electromagnet produced by the motion of electrons about its nucleus and by the spin of those electrons. Below the Curie point, atoms that behave as tiny magnets in ferromagnetic materials spontaneously align themselves. They become oriented in the same direction, so that their magnetic fields reinforce each other.

One requirement of a ferromagnetic material is that its atoms or ions have permanent magnetic moments. The magnetic moment of an atom comes from its electrons, since the nuclear contribution is negligible. Another requirement for ferromagnetism is that quantummechanical effects keep the magnetic moments of many atoms parallel to each other. According to the Pauli exclusion principle, two electrons in the same location cannot have their spins oriented in the same direction. Their spins must be antiparallel. In electrons in nearby atoms, if two electrons were antiparallel, that would mean the two electrons would have a strong repulsive force from being near each other. By having their spins and thus their magnetic moments be parallel, the material is in a lower energy configuration than that in which nearby electrons are exerting a strong repulsive force on each other. Without these quantum mechanical effects, the atoms would be disordered by thermal agitation, the moments of neighbouring atoms would neutralize each other, and the large magnetic moment characteristic of ferromagnetic materials would not exist.

There is ample evidence that some atoms or ions have a permanent magnetic moment that may be pictured as a dipole consisting of a positive, or north, pole separated from a negative, or south, pole. In ferromagnets, the large coupling between the atomic magnetic moments leads to some degree of dipole alignment and hence to a net magnetization.

The French physicist Pierre-Ernest Weiss postulated a large-scale type of magnetic order for ferromagnets called domain structure. According to his theory, a ferromagnetic solid consists of a large number of small regions, or domains, in each of which all of the atomic or ionic magnetic moments are aligned. If the resultant moments of these domains are randomly oriented, the object as a whole will not display magnetism, but an externally applied magnetizing field will, depending on its strength, rotate one after another of the domains into alignment with the external field and cause aligned domains to grow at the expense of nonaligned ones. In the limiting state called saturation, the entire object will comprise a single domain.

Domain structure can be observed directly. In one technique, a colloidal solution of small magnetic particles, usually magnetite, is placed on the surface of a ferromagnet. When surface poles are present, the particles tend to concentrate in certain regions to form a pattern that is readily observed with an optical microscope. Domain patterns have also been observed with polarized light, polarized neutrons, electron beams, and X-rays.

In many ferromagnets the dipole moments are aligned parallel by the strong coupling. This is the magnetic arrangement found for the elemental metals iron (Fe), nickel (Ni), and cobalt (Co) and for their alloys with one another and with some other elements. These materials still constitute the largest group of ferromagnets commonly used. The other elements that possess a collinear ordering are the rare-earth metals gadolinium (Gd), terbium (Tb), and dysprosium (Dy), but the last two become ferromagnets only well below room temperature. Some alloys, although not composed of any of the elements just mentioned, nevertheless have a parallel moment arrangement. An example of this is the Heusler alloy CuAlMn₃, in which the manganese (Mn) atoms have magnetic moments, though manganese metal itself is not ferromagnetic.

Several ionically bound compounds have been discovered to be ferromagnetic. Some of these compounds are electrical insulators; others have a conductivity of magnitude typical of semiconductors. Such compounds include chalcogenides (compounds of oxygen, sulfur, selenium, or tellurium), halides (compounds of fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine), and their combinations. The ions with permanent dipole moments in these materials are manganese, chromium (Cr), and europium (Eu); the others are diamagnetic. At low temperatures, the rare-earth metals holmium (Ho) and erbium (Er) have a nonparallel moment arrangement that gives rise to a substantial spontaneous magnetization. Some ionic compounds with the spinel crystal structure also possess ferromagnetic ordering. A different structure leads to a spontaneous magnetization in thulium (Tm) below 32 kelvins (K).

Above the Curie point (also called the Curie temperature), the spontaneous magnetization of the ferromagnetic material vanishes, and it becomes paramagnetic (i.e., it remains weakly magnetic). This occurs because the thermal energy becomes sufficient to overcome the internal aligning forces of the material. The Curie temperatures for some important ferromagnets are: iron, 1,043 K; cobalt, 1,394 K; nickel, 631 K; and gadolinium, 293 K.