Parasitism in plants and insects

In contrast with the saprotrophic fungi, parasitic fungi attack living organisms, penetrate their outer defenses, invade them, and obtain nourishment from living cytoplasm, thereby causing disease and sometimes death of the host. Most pathogenic (disease-causing) fungi are parasites of plants. Most parasites enter the host through a natural opening, such as a stoma (microscopic air pore) in a leaf, a lenticel (small opening through bark) in a stem, a broken plant hair or a hair socket in a fruit, or a wound in the plant. Among the most common and widespread diseases of plants caused by fungi are the various downy mildews (e.g., of grape, onion, tobacco), the powdery mildews (e.g., of grape, cherry, apple, peach, rose, lilac), the smuts (e.g., of corn, wheat, onion), the rusts (e.g., of wheat, oats, beans, asparagus, snapdragon, hollyhock), apple scab, brown rot of stone fruits, and various leaf spots, blights, and wilts. These diseases cause great damage annually throughout the world, destroying many crops and other sources of food. For example, nearly all the chestnut forests of the United States have been destroyed by the chestnut blight fungus (Cryphonectria parasitica), and the elms in both the United States and Europe have been devastated by Ophiostoma ulmi, the fungus that causes Dutch elm disease.

Infection of a plant takes place when the spores of a pathogenic fungus fall on the leaves or the stem of a susceptible host and germinate, each spore producing a germ tube. The tube grows on the surface of the host until it finds an opening; then the tube enters the host, puts out branches between the cells of the host, and forms a mycelial network within the invaded tissue. The germ tubes of some fungi produce special pressing organs called appressoria, from which a microscopic, needlelike peg presses against and punctures the epidermis of the host; after penetration, a mycelium develops in the usual manner. Many parasitic fungi absorb food from the host cells through the hyphal walls appressed against the cell walls of the host’s internal tissues. Others produce haustoria (special absorbing structures) that branch off from the intercellular hyphae and penetrate the cells themselves. Haustoria, which may be short, bulbous protrusions or large branched systems filling the whole cell, are characteristically produced by obligate (i.e., invariably parasitic) parasites; some facultative (i.e., occasionally parasitic) parasites also produce them. Obligate parasites, which require living cytoplasm and have extremely specialized nutritional requirements, are exceptionally difficult, and often impossible, to grow in a culture dish in a laboratory. Examples of obligate parasites are the downy mildews, the powdery mildews, and the rusts.

Certain fungi form highly specialized parasitic relationships with insects. For example, the fungal genus Septobasidium is parasitic on scale insects (order Homoptera) that feed on trees. The mycelium forms elaborate structures over colonies of insects feeding on the bark. Each insect sinks its proboscis (tubular sucking organ) into the bark and remains there the rest of its life, sucking sap. The fungus sinks haustoria into the bodies of some of the insects and feeds on them without killing them. The parasitized insects are, however, rendered sterile. The perpetuation of the insect species and the spread of the fungus are accomplished by the uninfected members of the colony, which are protected from enemies by the fungus body. Newly hatched scale insects crawl over the surface of the fungus, which is at that time sporulating. Fungal spores adhere to the young insects and germinate. As the young insects settle down in a new place on the bark to begin feeding, they establish new fungal colonies. Thus, part of the insect colony is sacrificed to the fungus as food in return for the fungal protection provided for the rest of the insects. The insect is parasitic on the tree and the fungus is parasitic on the insect, but the tree is the ultimate victim.

The sooty molds constitute another interesting ecological group of fungi that are associated with insects. The majority of sooty molds are tropical or subtropical, but some species occur in the temperate zones. All sooty molds are epiphytic (i.e., they grow on the surfaces of other plants), but only in areas where scale insects are present. The fungi parasitize neither the plants nor the insects but rather obtain their nourishment exclusively from the honeydew secretions of the scale insects. Growth of the dark mycelium over the plant leaves, however, is often so dense as to significantly reduce the intensity of the light that reaches the leaf surface; this reduction in turn significantly reduces the rate of photosynthesis. Insect-fungus associations found in the tropical forests of Central and South America include the unique relationship of leafcutter ants (sometimes called parasol ants) with fungi in the family Lepiotaceae (phylum Basidiomycota). The ants cultivate the fungi in their nests as an ongoing food supply and secrete enzymes that stimulate or suppress the growth of the fungi.