ion channel

ion channel, protein expressed by virtually all living cells that creates a pathway for charged ions from dissolved salts, including sodium, potassium, calcium, and chloride ions, to pass through the otherwise impermeant lipid cell membrane. Operation of cells in the nervous system, contraction of the heart and of skeletal muscle, and secretion in the pancreas are examples of physiological processes that require ion channels. In addition, ion channels in the membranes of intracellular organelles are important for regulating cytoplasmic calcium concentration and acidification of specific subcellular compartments (e.g., lysosomes).

Evolution and selectivity

Ions flow passively through channels toward equilibrium. This movement may be driven by electrical (voltage) or chemical (concentration) gradients. The ability to alter ion flow as a result of the development of ion channels may have provided an evolutionary advantage by allowing single-celled organisms to regulate their volume in the face of environmental changes. Through subsequent evolution, ion channels have come to play essential roles in cellular secretion and electrical signaling.

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cell: Membrane channels

Most ion channels are gated—that is, they open and close either spontaneously or in response to a specific stimulus, such as the binding of a small molecule to the channel protein (ligand-gated ion channels) or a change in voltage across the membrane that is sensed by charged segments of the channel protein (voltage-gated ion channels). In addition, most ion channels are selective, allowing only certain ions to pass through. Some channels conduct only one type of ion (e.g., potassium), whereas other channels exhibit relative selectivity—for example, allowing positively charged cations to pass through while excluding negatively charged anions. Cells in higher organisms may express more than 100 different types of ion channel, each with different selectivity and different gating properties.

Function and structure

The flow of charged ions through open channels represents an electrical current that changes the voltage across the membrane by altering the distribution of charge. In excitable cells, voltage-gated channels that allow transient influx of positive ions (e.g., sodium and calcium ions) underlie brief depolarizations of the membrane known as action potentials. Action potentials can be transmitted rapidly over long distances, allowing for coordination and precise timing of physiological outputs. In nearly all cases, action potentials trigger downstream physiological effects, such as secretion or muscle contraction, by opening voltage-gated calcium-selective ion channels and elevating intracellular calcium concentration.

The amino acid sequences of many different ion channel proteins have been determined, and in a few cases the X-ray crystal structure of the channel is known as well. Based on their structure, the majority of ion channels can be classified into six or seven superfamilies. For potassium-selective channels, which are among the best-characterized ion channels, four homologous transmembrane subunits come together to create a tunnel, known as the conducting pore, that provides a polar pathway through the nonpolar lipid membrane. Other channel types require either three or five homologous subunits to generate the central conducting pore. In solution, ions are stabilized by polarized water molecules in the surrounding environment. Narrow, highly selective ion channels mimic the water environment by lining the conducting pore with polarized carbonyl oxygen atoms. Less-selective channels form pores with a diameter large enough that ions and water molecules may pass through together.

Toxins and disease

Many natural toxins target ion channels. Examples include the voltage-gated sodium channel blocker tetrodotoxin, which is produced by bacteria resident in puffers (blowfish) and several other organisms; the irreversible nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist alpha-bungarotoxin, from the venom of snakes in the genus Bungarus (kraits); and plant-derived alkaloids, such as strychnine and d-tubocurarine, which inhibit the activation of ion channels that are opened by the neurotransmitters glycine and acetylcholine, respectively. In addition, a large number of therapeutic drugs, including local anesthetics, benzodiazepines, and sulfonylurea derivatives, act directly or indirectly to modulate ion channel activity.

Inherited mutations in ion channel genes and in genes encoding proteins that regulate ion channel activity have been implicated in a number of diseases, including ataxia (the inability to coordinate voluntary muscle movements), diabetes mellitus, certain types of epilepsy, and cardiac arrhythmias (irregularities in heartbeat). For example, genetic variations in sodium-selective and potassium-selective channels, or in their associated regulatory subunits, underlie some forms of long-QT syndrome. This syndrome is characterized by a prolongation in the depolarization time-course of cardiac myocyte action potentials, which can lead to fatal arrhythmias. In addition, mutations in adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-sensitive potassium channels that control insulin secretion from cells in the pancreas underlie some forms of diabetes mellitus.

Role in research

Ongoing basic research on ion channels seeks to understand the structural basis for permeability, ion selectivity, and gating at the molecular level. Research efforts also attempt to answer questions about the cellular regulation of ion channel protein synthesis and about the subcellular distribution and ultimate degradation of channels. In addition, compounds with greater specificity and potency for channels involved in pain sensation, cardiovascular disease, and other pathological conditions are potential sources for drug development.