joint

joint, in anatomy, a structure that separates two or more adjacent elements of the skeletal system. Depending on the type of joint, such separated elements may or may not move on one another. This article discusses the joints of the human body—particularly their structure but also their ligaments, nerve and blood supply, and nutrition. Although the discussion focuses on human joints, its content is applicable to joints of vertebrates in general and mammals in particular. For information about the disorders and injuries that commonly affect human joints, see joint disease.

Joint movements

In order to describe the main types of joint structures, it is helpful first to summarize the motions made possible by joints. These motions include spinning, swinging, gliding, rolling, and approximation.

Spin is a movement of a bone around its own long axis; it is denoted by the anatomical term rotation. An important example of spin is provided by the radius (outer bone of the forearm); this bone can spin upon the lower end of the humerus (upper arm) in all positions of the elbow. When an individual presses the back of the hand against the mouth, the forearm is pronated, or twisted; when the palm of the hand is pressed against the mouth, the forearm is supinated, or untwisted. Pronation is caused by medial (inward) rotation of the radius and supination by lateral (outward) rotation.

Swing, or angular movement, brings about a change in the angle between the long axis of the moving bone and some reference line in the fixed bone. Flexion (bending) and extension (straightening) of the elbow are examples of swing. A swing (to the right or left) of one bone away from another is called abduction; the reverse, adduction.

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Characteristics of the Human Body

Approximation denotes the movement caused by pressing or pulling one bone directly toward another—i.e., by a “translation” in the physical sense. The reverse of approximation is separation. Gliding and rolling movements occur only within synovial joints and cause a moving bone to swing.

Types of joints

Joints can be classified in two ways: temporally and structurally. Each classification is associated with joint function.

Considered temporally, joints are either transient or permanent. The bones of a transient joint fuse together sooner or later, but always after birth. All the joints of the skull, for example, are transient except those of the middle ear and those between the lower jaw and the braincase. The bones of a permanent joint do not fuse except as the result of disease or surgery. Such fusion is called arthrodesis. All permanent and some transient joints permit movement. Movement of the latter may be temporary, as with the roof bones of an infant’s skull during birth, or long-term, as with the joints of the base of the skull during postnatal development.

There are two basic structural types of joint: diarthrosis, in which fluid is present, and synarthrosis, in which there is no fluid. All the diarthroses (commonly called synovial joints) are permanent. Some of the synarthroses are transient; others are permanent.