Muscle in soft animals
Slugs, worms, and many other invertebrate animals have no skeleton, and thus movement is not produced by lever action. Even vertebrates have parts of the body that have muscles but no skeletal component (for example, the tongue). Many soft-bodied animals have muscle systems based on the principle illustrated by a simple wormlike animal, as shown in . The longitudinal muscle fibres run lengthwise along the body, and the circular fibres encircle it. The body contents are liquids or tissues that can be deformed into different shapes, but they maintain a constant volume. If longitudinal muscles contract and the body shortens, it must widen to accommodate its volume; if the circular muscles contract and the body thins, it must lengthen. Thus, the longitudinal and circular muscles are antagonistic, and shortening of either extends the other. Further, if the length of a circular muscle remains constant while the longitudinal muscle of one side of the body shortens, the body bends, and the longitudinal muscle of the other side is stretched. Thus, the longitudinal muscles of the left and right sides can be antagonistic toward each other. In worms the body fluids render muscles antagonistic through hydrostatic forces. The principle involved is sometimes called the principle of the hydrostatic skeleton.
This principle can apply to individual muscles as well if their fibres run in several directions. For example, a muscle that has some fibres running longitudinally and others running circularly and/or radially will become shorter and fatter when the longitudinal fibres shorten and will become longer and thinner when the circular and radial fibres shorten. There are many examples of muscle structure like this in the mollusks. One such example is the shell muscle of the abalone Haliotis, which connects the domed shell of the animal to its adhesive foot. When the muscle shortens, with the foot attached to a rock, the shell is pulled down over the animal to protect it. When the muscle lengthens (by contraction of circular and radial fibres), the shell is raised from the rock, allowing respiratory water currents to circulate.
Muscle systems
Invertebrate muscle systems
Cnidarians
The phylum Cnidaria includes the hydras, jellyfishes, and sea anemones. Cnidarians have two main body forms: the cylindrical tentacled polyp, exemplified by the hydra and the sea anemone, and the bell-shaped (or inverted saucer-shaped) medusa. Hydras are some of the simplest multicellular animals to have muscle. They are hollow, cylindrical, freshwater creatures about 10 mm long. One end attaches to a plant or some other support, and the other end is free and has a mouth surrounded by tentacles. The body wall consists of two layers of cells with a middle gelatinous layer called mesoglea. In hydras and other two-layered animals, one kind of cell serves as both muscle and epithelial cells. The compact body of each cell is packed closely with the adjacent cells to form an epithelium, and the base of each cell, where it meets the mesoglea, is drawn out into a long muscle fibre.
In the hydra the musculoepithelial cells that cover the outer surface of the body have longitudinal muscle fibres; those that line the gut cavity (the gastrodermis) have circular muscle fibres. Sea anemones have all of the muscle fibres in the gastrodermis, though some of the fibres are longitudinal and some are circular. When the mouth of the sea anemone is closed, the water in the gut cavity acts as a hydrostatic skeleton, permitting the animal to grow longer and thinner or shorter and fatter or to bend in any direction. These changes result from the interaction of the longitudinal and circular muscles through movements that are not as simple as those in the schematic worm shown in . The hydra can reduce its volume by using its muscles to squeeze water out of the gut cavity through the open mouth. It can reinflate using cilia to circulate water into the gut cavity. Its movements are also influenced by the viscoelastic properties of the mesogleal jelly.
The largest and most familiar medusae are the jellyfishes of the class Scyphozoa, some of which grow to a diameter of two metres. Though large, the scyphozoan jellyfishes have only a single layer of cells on the outer surface of the body and a single layer lining the gut cavity; most of the volume of the animal is occupied by the gelatinous mesoglea. The epidermis of the undersurface of the bell includes the musculoepithelial cells responsible for the animal’s weak swimming movements. The muscle fibres contract, reducing the diameter of the bell and forcing out a stream of water. The bell then returns to its original shape by elastic recoil of the mesoglea. These movements are performed in a regular rhythm with a period of a few seconds, propelling the animal through the water. Medusae are among the simplest animals that use muscles to make rhythmic movements. In at least some medusae, the circular muscles, which do most of the work of swimming, are striated. In contrast, most of the other muscles of cnidarians are smooth.