neurotoxin

neurotoxin, substance that alters the structure or function of the nervous system. More than 1,000 chemicals are known to have neurotoxic effects in animals. The substances include a wide range of natural and human-made chemical compounds, from snake venom and pesticides to ethyl alcohol, heroin, and cocaine.

Characteristics

Many neurotoxins are of external origin, entering the body from environmental sources. Others, however, are endogenous, being produced and existing within the body. Examples of endogenous neurotoxins include the neurotransmitters nitric oxide and glutamate. Although both are important to cell communication in the nervous system, they can become toxic to neurons in high concentrations.

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The extent to which a neurotoxin affects nerve function depends on the toxicity of the substance and on the individual’s age and health (particularly renal and hepatic health) at the time of exposure. It also depends on the level and frequency of contact with a chemical; the same substance can have both toxic and therapeutic effects at different concentration levels. For instance, vitamin A and vitamin B₆ are vital to a healthy diet; however, they become neurotoxic in large doses. Some puffer fish (and certain other aquatic and terrestrial animals) carry tetrodotoxin, an extremely potent inhibitor of voltage-gated sodium channels on neurons; nonetheless, fugu, a dish prepared from puffer species, is a traditional culinary delicacy in Japan. When inhaled, less than one microgram of botulinum toxin, a protein produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum, is lethal to humans; the toxin, in the form of Botox, however, is also used for a variety of medicinal and cosmetic purposes. Likewise, life-saving chemotherapy treatment and antipsychotic drugs can also have neurotoxic effects, although the benefits often outweigh the risks.

Physiological effects

Neurotoxins are absorbed through inhalation, ingestion, skin contact, or injection and can have immediate or long-lasting impacts by causing neurons to malfunction or by disrupting interneuron communication. Slurred words or poor coordination due to toxic effects on neurons from alcohol consumption, for example, are temporary, whereas cognitive damage caused by lead exposure is irreversible. Certain neurotoxins are highly potent and have been developed into chemical weapons. The nerve agent sarin, for example, is an organophosphorous compound that is classified as a weapon of mass destruction; sarin gas can kill a person within 10 minutes of exposure.

Young and elderly persons are particularly vulnerable to neurotoxic chemicals. In elderly individuals, a decline in neural function associated with aging can limit the ability to cope with the effects of neurotoxins, particularly for those with compromised liver metabolism or impaired renal function, which are the primary routes of toxin clearance from the body. Prenatal, postnatal, and early childhood exposure to certain chemicals can result in permanent damage to the developing brain, causing functional deficits that become apparent immediately or that emerge later in life. Studies have shown that the placenta cannot prevent many toxins from passing from mother to fetus; moreover, chemicals can be transferred through breast milk.

Certain chemicals found in the environment and in common household items have been linked to behavioral and cognitive problems in children. In the early 2000s, increased exposure to some of those chemicals during fetal and early childhood development—as result of overall increases in the use of chemicals in food production and in consumer products—was blamed for the sharp rise in disorders such as autism and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children. Although genetic factors play a role, neurotoxins such as arsenic, chlorpyrifos, DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), ethyl alcohol, fluoride, lead, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), manganese, mercury, and toluene are major contributors to the prevalence of neurobehavioral disorders.

The impact of some neurotoxins, such as lead and ethyl alcohol, are well-documented. Fetal alcohol syndrome, characterized by brain damage and developmental delays in children, has been known since the 1970s to occur in children born to alcoholic mothers. Concern about lead contamination dates to ancient Rome, where the malleable metal was used to line aqueducts. Roman author and civil engineer Vitruvius noted that “in casting lead, the fumes from it…destroy the vigour of the blood.”

In the modern era, there is significant concern about the combined effects of moderate and even low-level exposure to multiple neurotoxins; more research is needed, however, to determine the physiological significance of such exposures. In addition, thousands of other chemicals are suspected of having neurotoxic effects, though many remain untested.