Foaming
Foams, also called expanded plastics, possess inherent features that make them suitable for certain applications. For instance, the thermal conductivity of a foam is lower than that of the solid polymer. Also, a foamed polymer is more rigid than the solid polymer for any given weight of the material. Finally, compressive stresses usually cause foams to collapse while absorbing much energy, an obvious advantage in protective packaging. Properties such as these can be tailored to fit various applications by the choice of polymer and by the manner of foam formation or fabrication. The largest markets for foamed plastics are in home insulation (polystyrene, polyurethane, phenol formaldehyde) and in packaging, including various disposable food and drink containers.
Foamed thermoplastics
Polystyrene pellets can be impregnated with isopentane at room temperature and modest pressure. When the pellets are heated, they can be made to fuse together at the same time that the isopentane evaporates, foaming the polystyrene and cooling the assembly at the same time. Usually the pellets are prefoamed to some extent before being put into a mold to form a cup or some form of rigid packaging. The isopentane-impregnated pellets may also be heated under pressure and extruded, in which case a continuous sheet of foamed polystyrene is obtained that can be shaped into packaging, dishes, or egg cartons while it is still warm.
Structural foams can also be produced by injecting nitrogen or some other gas into a molten thermoplastic such as polystyrene or polypropylene under pressure in an extruder. Foams produced in this manner are more dense than the ones described above, but they have excellent strength and rigidity, making them suitable for furniture and other architectural uses.
One way of making foams of a variety of thermoplastics is to incorporate a material that will decompose to generate a gas when heated. To be an effective blowing agent, the material should decompose at about the molding temperature of the plastic, decompose over a narrow temperature range, evolve a large volume of gas, and, of course, be safe to use. One commercial agent is azodicarbonamide, usually compounded with some other ingredients in order to modify the decomposition temperature and to aid in dispersion of the agent in the resin. One mole (116 grams) of azodicarbonamide generates about 39,000 cubic cm of nitrogen and other gases at 200 °C. Thus, 1 gram added to 100 grams of polyethylene can result in foam with a volume of more than 800 cubic cm. Polymers that can be foamed with blowing agents include polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyamides, and plasticized PVC.
Foamed thermosets
The rapid reaction of isocyanates with hydroxyl-bearing prepolymers to make polyurethanes is mentioned above in Reaction injection molding. These materials also can be foamed by incorporating a volatile liquid, which evaporates under the heat of reaction and foams the reactive mixture to a high degree. The rigidity of the network depends on the components chosen, especially the prepolymer.
Hydroxyl-terminated polyethers are often used to prepare flexible foams, which are used in furniture cushioning. Hydroxyl-terminated polyesters, on the other hand, are popular for making rigid foams such as those used in custom packaging of appliances. The good adhesion of polyurethanes to metallic surfaces has brought about some novel uses, such as filling and making rigid certain aircraft components (rudders and elevators, for example).
Another rigid thermoset that can be foamed in place is based on phenol-formaldehyde resins. The final stage of network formation is brought about by addition of an acid catalyst in the presence of a volatile liquid.
Finishing
Joining
Some plastics can be joined by welding, in the same manner as metals—PVC and polyethylene tanks and ductwork being prime examples. More commonly, surfaces are joined by being brought into contact with one another and heated by conduction or by dielectric heating. Heat sealing of bags made from tubes of blow-extruded polyolefins such as polyethylene and polypropylene usually requires contact with a hot sealing bar. PVC has a high enough dielectric loss that heat can be generated throughout the material by exposure to a high-frequency, high-voltage electric field.
Machining
Rigid thermoplastics and thermosets can be machined by conventional processes such as drilling, sawing, turning on a lathe, sanding, and other operations. Glass-reinforced thermosets are machined into gears, pulleys, and other shapes, especially when the number of parts does not justify construction of a metal mold. Various forms can be stamped out (die-cut) from sheets of thermoplastics and thermosets. The cups made by vacuum forming, for instance, are cut out of the mother sheet using a sharp die. In the case of a thermoplastic such as polystyrene, the scrap sheet left over can be reground and remolded.
Coating
Although colour may be added in the form of a pigment or dye throughout a plastic article, there are many applications where a surface coating is valuable for protective or decorative purposes. The automobile bumpers produced by reaction injection molding can be painted to match the rest of the body. It is important in applying coatings to plastics that the solvent used does not cause swelling of the underlying substrate. For this reason, latex dispersion paints have found favour, although surface treatment is necessary to provide good bonding with these materials.
Fibre reinforcement
The term polymer-matrix composite is applied to a number of plastic-based materials in which several phases are present. It is often used to describe systems in which a continuous phase (the matrix) is polymeric and another phase (the reinforcement) has at least one long dimension. The major classes of composites include those made up of discrete layers (sandwich laminates) and those reinforced by fibrous mats, woven cloth, or long, continuous filaments of glass or other materials.
Sandwich laminates
Plywood is a form of sandwich construction of natural wood fibres with plastics. The layers are easily distinguished and are both held together and impregnated with a thermosetting resin, usually urea formaldehyde. A decorative laminate can consist of a half-dozen layers of fibrous kraft paper (similar to paper used for grocery bags) together with a surface layer of paper with a printed design—the entire assembly being impregnated with a melamine-formaldehyde resin. For both plywood and the paper laminate, the cross-linking reaction is carried out with sheets of the material pressed and heated in large laminating presses.
Fibreglass
Fibrous reinforcement in popular usage is almost synonymous with fibreglass, although other fibrous materials (carbon, boron, metals, aramid polymers) are also used. Glass fibre is supplied as mats of randomly oriented microfibrils, as woven cloth, and as continuous or discontinuous filaments.
Hand lay-up is a versatile method employed in the construction of large structures such as tanks, pools, and boat hulls. In hand lay-up mats of glass fibres are arranged over a mold and sprayed with a matrix-forming resin, such as a solution of unsaturated polyester (60 parts) in styrene monomer (40 parts) together with free-radical polymerization initiators. The mat can be supplied already impregnated with resin. Polymerization and network formation may require heating, although free-radical “redox” systems can initiate polymerization at room temperature. The molding may be compacted by covering the mold with a blanket and applying a vacuum between the blanket and the surface or, when the volume of production justifies it, by use of a matching metal mold.
Continuous multifilament yarns consist of strands with several hundred filaments, each of which is 5 to 20 micrometres in diameter. These are incorporated into a plastic matrix through a process known as filament winding, in which resin-impregnated strands are wound around a form called a mandrel and then coated with the matrix resin. When the matrix resin is converted into a network, the strength in the hoop direction is very great (being essentially that of the glass fibres). Epoxies are most often used as matrix resins, because of their good adhesion to glass fibres, although water resistance may not be as good as with the unsaturated polyesters.
A method for producing profiles (cross-sectional shapes) with continuous fibre reinforcement is pultrusion. As the name suggests, pultrusion resembles extrusion, except that the impregnated fibres are pulled through a die that defines the profile while being heated to form a dimensionally stable network.