separation and purification
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separation and purification, in chemistry, separation of a substance into its components and the removal of impurities. There are a large number of important applications in fields such as medicine and manufacturing.
General principles
Since ancient times, people have used methods of separating and purifying chemical substances for improving the quality of life. The extraction of metals from ores and of medicines from plants is older than recorded history. In the Middle Ages the alchemists’ search for the philosophers’ stone (a means of changing base metals into gold) and the elixir of life (a substance that would perpetuate youth) depended on separations. In the industrial and technological revolutions, separations and purifications have assumed major importance. During World War II, for example, one of the main problems of the Manhattan Project, the U.S. government research project that led to the first atomic bombs, was the separation of uranium-235 from uranium-238. Many industries now find separations indispensable: the petroleum industry separates crude oil into products used as fuels, lubricants, and chemical raw materials; the pharmaceutical industry separates and purifies natural and synthetic drugs to meet health needs; and the mining industry is based on the separation and purification of metals.
Separations and purifications also find their places in medicine and the sciences. In the life sciences, many advances can be directly traced to the development of each new separation method. The first step in understanding the chemical reactions of life is to learn what substances are present in samples obtained from biological sources. The challenge and power of such separations is demonstrated in the two-dimensional gel electrophoretic separation of sulfur-35 methionine-labeled polypeptides, or proteins, from transformed epithelial amnion cells (AMA). A total of 1,244 polypeptides have been observed, many of whose functions are currently unknown.
Basic concepts of separations
This section is concerned with separations of the smallest subdivisions of matter, such as atoms, molecules, and minute particles (sand, minerals, bacteria, etc.). Such processes start with a sample in a mixed state (composed of more than one substance) and transform it into new samples, each of which—in the ideal case—consists of a single substance. Separation methods, then, can be defined as processes that change the relative amounts of substances in a mixture. In chemical methods, one may start with a completely homogeneous mixture (a solution) or a heterogeneous sample (e.g., solid plus liquid); in the act of separation, some particles are either partially or totally removed from the sample.
Reasons for making separations
There are two general reasons for performing separations on mixtures. First, the mixture may contain some substance that should be isolated from the rest of the mixture: this process of isolating and thus removing substances considered to be contaminants is called purification. For example, in the manufacture of synthetic drugs, mixtures containing variable proportions of several compounds usually arise. The removal of the desired drug from the rest of the mixture is important if the product is to have uniform potency and is to be free of other components that may be dangerous to the body.
The second reason for performing separations is to alter the composition of a sample so that one or more of the components can be analyzed. For example, the analysis of air pollutants to assess the quality of the air is of great interest, yet many of the pollutants are at a concentration too low for direct analysis, even with the most sensitive devices. Pollutants can be collected by passing samples of air through a tube containing an adsorbent material. By this process the pollutants are concentrated to a level such that straightforward analysis and monitoring can take place. In a second example, several impurities in a sample may interfere with the analysis of the substance of primary interest. Thus, in the analysis of trace concentrations of metals in rivers, organic substances can cause erroneous results. These interferences must be removed prior to the analysis. Several techniques for removing interferences are discussed in analysis: Interference removal.
Classification of separations
There are a variety of criteria by which separations can be classified. One is based on the quantity of material to be processed. Some methods of separation (e.g., chromatography) work best with a small amount of sample, while others (e.g., distillation) are more suited to large-scale operations.
Classification may also be based on the physical or chemical phenomena utilized to effect the separation. These phenomena can be divided into two broad categories: equilibrium and rate (kinetic) processes. Table 1 lists some separation methods based on equilibria, and Table 2 indicates those methods based on rate phenomena.
| barrier separations | field separations |
|---|---|
| membrane filtration | electrophoresis |
| dialysis | ultracentrifugation |
| ultrafiltration | electrolysis |
| electrodialysis | field-flow fractionation |
| reverse osmosis |
| gas-liquid | gas-solid | liquid-solid | liquid-liquid | supercritical fluid-solid | supercritical fluid-liquid |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| distillation | adsorption | precipitation | extraction | supercritical-fluid chromatography | supercritical-fluid extraction |
| gas-liquid chromatography | sublimation | zone melting | partition chromatography | ||
| foam fractionation | crystallization | ||||
| ion exchange | |||||
| adsorption | |||||
| exclusion | |||||
| clathration |