Residual analysis
The analysis of residuals plays an important role in validating the regression model. If the error term in the regression model satisfies the four assumptions noted earlier, then the model is considered valid. Since the statistical tests for significance are also based on these assumptions, the conclusions resulting from these significance tests are called into question if the assumptions regarding ε are not satisfied.
The ith residual is the difference between the observed value of the dependent variable, yi, and the value predicted by the estimated regression equation, ŷi. These residuals, computed from the available data, are treated as estimates of the model error, ε. As such, they are used by statisticians to validate the assumptions concerning ε. Good judgment and experience play key roles in residual analysis.
Graphical plots and statistical tests concerning the residuals are examined carefully by statisticians, and judgments are made based on these examinations. The most common residual plot shows ŷ on the horizontal axis and the residuals on the vertical axis. If the assumptions regarding the error term, ε, are satisfied, the residual plot will consist of a horizontal band of points. If the residual analysis does not indicate that the model assumptions are satisfied, it often suggests ways in which the model can be modified to obtain better results.
Model building
In regression analysis, model building is the process of developing a probabilistic model that best describes the relationship between the dependent and independent variables. The major issues are finding the proper form (linear or curvilinear) of the relationship and selecting which independent variables to include. In building models it is often desirable to use qualitative as well as quantitative variables.
As noted above, quantitative variables measure how much or how many; qualitative variables represent types or categories. For instance, suppose it is of interest to predict sales of an iced tea that is available in either bottles or cans. Clearly, the independent variable “container type” could influence the dependent variable “sales.” Container type is a qualitative variable, however, and must be assigned numerical values if it is to be used in a regression study. So-called dummy variables are used to represent qualitative variables in regression analysis. For example, the dummy variable x could be used to represent container type by setting x = 0 if the iced tea is packaged in a bottle and x = 1 if the iced tea is in a can. If the beverage could be placed in glass bottles, plastic bottles, or cans, it would require two dummy variables to properly represent the qualitative variable container type. In general, k - 1 dummy variables are needed to model the effect of a qualitative variable that may assume k values.
The general linear model y = β0 + β1x1 + β2x2 + . . . + βpxp + ε can be used to model a wide variety of curvilinear relationships between dependent and independent variables. For instance, each of the independent variables could be a nonlinear function of other variables. Also, statisticians sometimes find it necessary to transform the dependent variable in order to build a satisfactory model. A logarithmic transformation is one of the more common types.
Correlation
Correlation and regression analysis are related in the sense that both deal with relationships among variables. The correlation coefficient is a measure of linear association between two variables. Values of the correlation coefficient are always between −1 and +1. A correlation coefficient of +1 indicates that two variables are perfectly related in a positive linear sense, a correlation coefficient of −1 indicates that two variables are perfectly related in a negative linear sense, and a correlation coefficient of 0 indicates that there is no linear relationship between the two variables. For simple linear regression, the sample correlation coefficient is the square root of the coefficient of determination, with the sign of the correlation coefficient being the same as the sign of b1, the coefficient of x1 in the estimated regression equation.
Neither regression nor correlation analyses can be interpreted as establishing cause-and-effect relationships. They can indicate only how or to what extent variables are associated with each other. The correlation coefficient measures only the degree of linear association between two variables. Any conclusions about a cause-and-effect relationship must be based on the judgment of the analyst.
Time series and forecasting
A time series is a set of data collected at successive points in time or over successive periods of time. A sequence of monthly data on new housing starts and a sequence of weekly data on product sales are examples of time series. Usually the data in a time series are collected at equally spaced periods of time, such as hour, day, week, month, or year.
A primary concern of time series analysis is the development of forecasts for future values of the series. For instance, the federal government develops forecasts of many economic time series such as the gross domestic product, exports, and so on. Most companies develop forecasts of product sales.
While in practice both qualitative and quantitative forecasting methods are utilized, statistical approaches to forecasting employ quantitative methods. The two most widely used methods of forecasting are the Box-Jenkins autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) and econometric models.
ARIMA methods are based on the assumption that a probability model generates the time series data. Future values of the time series are assumed to be related to past values as well as to past errors. A time series must be stationary, i.e., one which has a constant mean, variance, and autocorrelation function, in order for an ARIMA model to be applicable. For nonstationary series, sometimes differences between successive values can be taken and used as a stationary series to which the ARIMA model can be applied.
Econometric models develop forecasts of a time series using one or more related time series and possibly past values of the time series. This approach involves developing a regression model in which the time series is forecast as the dependent variable; the related time series as well as the past values of the time series are the independent or predictor variables.
Nonparametric methods
The statistical methods discussed above generally focus on the parameters of populations or probability distributions and are referred to as parametric methods. Nonparametric methods are statistical methods that require fewer assumptions about a population or probability distribution and are applicable in a wider range of situations. For a statistical method to be classified as a nonparametric method, it must satisfy one of the following conditions: (1) the method is used with qualitative data, or (2) the method is used with quantitative data when no assumption can be made about the population probability distribution. In cases where both parametric and nonparametric methods are applicable, statisticians usually recommend using parametric methods because they tend to provide better precision. Nonparametric methods are useful, however, in situations where the assumptions required by parametric methods appear questionable. A few of the more commonly used nonparametric methods are described below.
Assume that individuals in a sample are asked to state a preference for one of two similar and competing products. A plus (+) sign can be recorded if an individual prefers one product and a minus (−) sign if the individual prefers the other product. With qualitative data in this form, the nonparametric sign test can be used to statistically determine whether a difference in preference for the two products exists for the population. The sign test also can be used to test hypotheses about the value of a population median.
The Wilcoxon signed-rank test can be used to test hypotheses about two populations. In collecting data for this test, each element or experimental unit in the sample must generate two paired or matched data values, one from population 1 and one from population 2. Differences between the paired or matched data values are used to test for a difference between the two populations. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test is applicable when no assumption can be made about the form of the probability distributions for the populations. Another nonparametric test for detecting differences between two populations is the Mann-Whitney-Wilcoxon test. This method is based on data from two independent random samples, one from population 1 and another from population 2. There is no matching or pairing as required for the Wilcoxon signed-rank test.
Nonparametric methods for correlation analysis are also available. The Spearman rank correlation coefficient is a measure of the relationship between two variables when data in the form of rank orders are available. For instance, the Spearman rank correlation coefficient could be used to determine the degree of agreement between men and women concerning their preference ranking of 10 different television shows. A Spearman rank correlation coefficient of 1 would indicate complete agreement, a coefficient of −1 would indicate complete disagreement, and a coefficient of 0 would indicate that the rankings were unrelated.
Statistical quality control
Statistical quality control refers to the use of statistical methods in the monitoring and maintaining of the quality of products and services. One method, referred to as acceptance sampling, can be used when a decision must be made to accept or reject a group of parts or items based on the quality found in a sample. A second method, referred to as statistical process control, uses graphical displays known as control charts to determine whether a process should be continued or should be adjusted to achieve the desired quality.
Acceptance sampling
Assume that a consumer receives a shipment of parts called a lot from a producer. A sample of parts will be taken and the number of defective items counted. If the number of defective items is low, the entire lot will be accepted. If the number of defective items is high, the entire lot will be rejected. Correct decisions correspond to accepting a good-quality lot and rejecting a poor-quality lot. Because sampling is being used, the probabilities of erroneous decisions need to be considered. The error of rejecting a good-quality lot creates a problem for the producer; the probability of this error is called the producer’s risk. On the other hand, the error of accepting a poor-quality lot creates a problem for the purchaser or consumer; the probability of this error is called the consumer’s risk.
The design of an acceptance sampling plan consists of determining a sample size n and an acceptance criterion c, where c is the maximum number of defective items that can be found in the sample and the lot still be accepted. The key to understanding both the producer’s risk and the consumer’s risk is to assume that a lot has some known percentage of defective items and compute the probability of accepting the lot for a given sampling plan. By varying the assumed percentage of defective items in a lot, several different sampling plans can be evaluated and a sampling plan selected such that both the producer’s and consumer’s risks are reasonably low.
Statistical process control
Statistical process control uses sampling and statistical methods to monitor the quality of an ongoing process such as a production operation. A graphical display referred to as a control chart provides a basis for deciding whether the variation in the output of a process is due to common causes (randomly occurring variations) or to out-of-the-ordinary assignable causes. Whenever assignable causes are identified, a decision can be made to adjust the process in order to bring the output back to acceptable quality levels.
Control charts can be classified by the type of data they contain. For instance, an x̄-chart is employed in situations where a sample mean is used to measure the quality of the output. Quantitative data such as length, weight, and temperature can be monitored with an x̄-chart. Process variability can be monitored using a range or R-chart. In cases in which the quality of output is measured in terms of the number of defectives or the proportion of defectives in the sample, an np-chart or a p-chart can be used.
All control charts are constructed in a similar fashion. For example, the centre line of an x̄-chart corresponds to the mean of the process when the process is in control and producing output of acceptable quality. The vertical axis of the control chart identifies the scale of measurement for the variable of interest. The upper horizontal line of the control chart, referred to as the upper control limit, and the lower horizontal line, referred to as the lower control limit, are chosen so that when the process is in control there will be a high probability that the value of a sample mean will fall between the two control limits. Standard practice is to set the control limits at three standard deviations above and below the process mean. The process can be sampled periodically. As each sample is selected, the value of the sample mean is plotted on the control chart. If the value of a sample mean is within the control limits, the process can be continued under the assumption that the quality standards are being maintained. If the value of the sample mean is outside the control limits, an out-of-control conclusion points to the need for corrective action in order to return the process to acceptable quality levels.