Quarks and antiquarks
The baryons and mesons are complex subatomic particles built from more-elementary objects, the quarks. Six types of quark, together with their corresponding antiquarks, are necessary to account for all the known hadrons. The six varieties, or “flavours,” of quark have acquired the names up, down, charm, strange, top, and bottom. The meaning of these somewhat unusual names is not important; they have arisen for a number of reasons. What is important is the way that the quarks contribute to matter at different levels and the properties that they bear.
The quarks are unusual in that they carry electric charges that are smaller in magnitude than e, the size of the charge of the electron (1.6 × 10−19 coulomb). This is necessary if quarks are to combine together to give the correct electric charges for the observed particles, usually 0, +e, or −e. Only two types of quark are necessary to build protons and neutrons, the constituents of atomic nuclei. These are the up quark, with a charge of +2/3e, and the down quark, which has a charge of −1/3e. The proton consists of two up quarks and one down quark, which gives it a total charge of +e. The neutron, on the other hand, is built from one up quark and two down quarks, so that it has a net charge of zero. The other properties of the up and down quarks also add together to give the measured values for the proton and neutron. For example, the quarks have spins of 1/2. In order to form a proton or a neutron, which also have spin 1/2, the quarks must align in such a way that two of the three spins cancel each other, leaving a net value of 1/2.
Up and down quarks can also combine to form particles other than protons and neutrons. For example, the spins of the three quarks can be arranged so that they do not cancel. In this case they form short-lived resonance states, which have been given the name delta, or Δ. The deltas have spins of 3/2, and the up and down quarks combine in four possible configurations—uuu, uud, udd, and ddd—where u and d stand for up and down. The charges of these Δ states are +2e, +e, 0, and −e, respectively.
The up and down quarks can also combine with their antiquarks to form mesons. The pi-meson, or pion, which is the lightest meson and an important component of cosmic rays, exists in three forms: with charge e (or 1), with charge 0, and with charge −e (or −1). In the positive state an up quark combines with a down antiquark; a down quark together with an up antiquark compose the negative pion; and the neutral pion is a quantum mechanical mixture of two states—u and d, where the bar over the top of the letter indicates the antiquark.
Up and down are the lightest varieties of quarks. Somewhat heavier are a second pair of quarks, charm (c) and strange (s), with charges of +2/3e and −1/3e, respectively. A third, still heavier pair of quarks consists of top (or truth, t) and bottom (or beauty, b), again with charges of +2/3e and −1/3e, respectively. These heavier quarks and their antiquarks combine with up and down quarks and with each other to produce a range of hadrons, each of which is heavier than the basic proton and pion, which represent the lightest varieties of baryon and meson, respectively. For example, the particle called lambda (Λ) is a baryon built from u, d, and s quarks; thus, it is like the neutron but with a d quark replaced by an s quark.