Areas of study

Anatomy or morphology

Descriptions of external form and internal organization are among the earliest records available regarding the systematic study of animals. Aristotle was an indefatigable collector and dissector of animals. He found differing degrees of structural complexity, which he described with regard to ways of living, habits, and body parts. Although Aristotle had no formal system of classification, it is apparent that he viewed animals as arranged from the simplest to the most complex in an ascending series. Since man was even more complex than animals and, moreover, possessed a rational faculty, he therefore occupied the highest position and a special category. This hierarchical perception of the animate world proved to be useful in every century to the present, except that in the modern view there is no such “scale of nature,” and there is change in time by evolution from the simple to the complex.

After the time of Aristotle, Mediterranean science was centred at Alexandria, where the study of anatomy, particularly the central nervous system, flourished and, in fact, first became recognized as a discipline. Galen studied anatomy at Alexandria in the 2nd century and later dissected many animals. Much later, the contributions of the Renaissance anatomist Andreas Vesalius, though made in the context of medicine, as were those of Galen, stimulated to a great extent the rise of comparative anatomy. During the latter part of the 15th century and throughout the 16th century, there was a strong tradition in anatomy; important similarities were observed in the anatomy of different animals, and many illustrated books were published to record these observations.

But anatomy remained a purely descriptive science until the advent of functional considerations in which the correlation between structure and function was consciously investigated; as by French biologists Buffon and Cuvier. Cuvier cogently argued that a trained naturalist could deduce from one suitably chosen part of an animal’s body the complete set of adaptations that characterized the organism. Because it was obvious that organisms with similar parts pursue similar habits, they were placed together in a system of classification. Cuvier pursued this viewpoint, which he called the theory of correlations, in a somewhat dogmatic manner and placed himself in opposition to the romantic natural philosophers, such as the German intellectual Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, who saw a tendency to ideal types in animal form. The tension between these schools of thought—adaptation as the consequence of necessary bodily functions and adaptation as an expression of a perfecting principle in nature—runs as a leitmotiv through much of biology, with overtones extending into the early 20th century.

The twin concepts of homology (similarity of origin) and analogy (similarity of appearance), in relation to structure, are the creation of the 19th-century British anatomist Richard Owen. Although they antedate the Darwinian view of evolution, the anatomical data on which they were based became, largely as a result of the work of the German comparative anatomist Carl Gegenbaur, important evidence in favour of evolutionary change, despite Owen’s steady unwillingness to accept the view of diversification of life from a common origin.

In summary, anatomy moved from a purely descriptive phase as an adjunct to classificatory studies, into a partnership with studies of function and became, in the 19th century, a major contributor to the concept of evolution.

Taxonomy or systematics

Not until the work of Carolus Linnaeus did the variety of life receive a widely accepted systematic treatment. Linnaeus strove for a “natural method of arrangement,” one that is now recognizable as an intuitive grasp of homologous relationships, reflecting evolutionary descent from a common ancestor; however, the natural method of arrangement sought by Linnaeus was more akin to the tenets of idealized morphology because he wanted to define a “type” form as epitomizing a species.

It was in the nomenclatorial aspect of classification that Linnaeus created a revolutionary advance with the introduction of a Latin binomial system: each species received a Latin name, which was not influenced by local names and which invoked the authority of Latin as a language common to the learned people of that day. The Latin name has two parts. The first word in the Latin name for the common chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes, for example, indicates the larger category, or genus, to which chimpanzees belong; the second word is the name of the species within the genus. In addition to species and genera, Linnaeus also recognized other classificatory groups, or taxa (singular taxon), which are still used; namely, order, class, and kingdom, to which have been added family (between genus and order) and phylum (between class and kingdom). Each of these can be divided further by the appropriate prefix of sub- or super-, as in subfamily or superclass. Linnaeus’ great work, the Systema naturae, went through 12 editions during his lifetime; the 13th, and final, edition appeared posthumously. Although his treatment of the diversity of living things has been expanded in detail, revised in terms of taxonomic categories, and corrected in the light of continuing work—for example, Linnaeus treated whales as fish—it still sets the style and method, even to the use of Latin names, for contemporary nomenclatorial work.

Linnaeus sought a natural method of arrangement, but he actually defined types of species on the basis of idealized morphology. The greatest change from Linnaeus’ outlook is reflected in the phrase “the new systematics,” which was introduced in the 20th century and through which an explicit effort is made to have taxonomic schemes reflect evolutionary history. The basic unit of classification, the species, is also the basic unit of evolution—i.e., a population of actually or potentially interbreeding individuals. Such a population shares, through interbreeding, its genetic resources. In so doing, it creates the gene pool—its total genetic material—that determines the biological resources of the species and on which natural selection continuously acts. This approach has guided work on classifying animals away from somewhat arbitrary categorization of new species to that of recreating evolutionary history (phylogeny) and incorporating it in the system of classification. Modern taxonomists or systematists, therefore, are among the foremost students of evolution.

Physiology

The practical consequences of physiology have always been an unavoidable human concern, in both medicine and animal husbandry. Inevitably, from Hippocrates to the present, practical knowledge of human bodily function has accumulated along with that of domestic animals and plants. This knowledge has been expanded, especially since the early 1800s, by experimental work on animals in general, a study known as comparative physiology. The experimental dimension had wide applications following Harvey’s demonstration of the circulation of blood. From then on, medical physiology developed rapidly; notable texts appeared, such as Albrecht von Haller’s eight-volume work Elementa Physiologiae Corporis Humani (Elements of Human Physiology), which had a medical emphasis. Toward the end of the 18th century the influence of chemistry on physiology became pronounced through Antoine Lavoisier’s brilliant analysis of respiration as a form of combustion. This French chemist not only determined that oxygen was consumed by living systems but also opened the way to further inquiry into the energetics of living systems. His studies further strengthened the mechanistic view, which holds that the same natural laws govern both the inanimate and the animate realms.

Physiological principles achieved new levels of sophistication and comprehensiveness with Bernard’s concept of constancy of the internal environment, the point being that only under certain constantly maintained conditions is there optimal bodily function. His rational and incisive insights were augmented by concurrent developments in Germany, where Johannes Müller explored the comparative aspects of animal function and anatomy, and Justus von Liebig and Car1 Ludwig applied chemical and physical methods, respectively, to the solution of physiological problems. As a result, many useful techniques were advanced—e.g., means for precise measurement of muscular action and changes in blood pressure and means for defining the nature of body fluids.

By this time the organ systems—circulatory, digestive, endocrine, excretory, integumentary, muscular, nervous, reproductive, respiratory, and skeletal—had been defined, both anatomically and functionally, and research efforts were focussed on understanding these systems in cellular and chemical terms, an emphasis that continues to the present and has resulted in specialties in cell physiology and physiological chemistry. General categories of research now deal with the transportation of materials across membranes; the metabolism of cells, including synthesis and breakdown of molecules; and the regulation of these processes.

Interest has also increased in the most complex of physiological systems, the nervous system. Much comparative work has been done by utilizing animals with structures especially amenable to various experimental techniques; for example, the large nerves in squids have been extensively studied in terms of the transmission of nerve impulses, and insect and crustacean eyes have yielded significant information on patterns of sensory inputs. Most of this work is closely associated with studies on animal orientation and behaviour. Although the contemporary physiologist often studies functional problems at the molecular and cellular levels, he is also aware of the need to integrate cellular studies into the many-faceted functions of the total organism.

Embryology, or developmental studies

Embryonic growth and differentiation of parts have been major biological problems since ancient times. A 17th-century explanation of development assumed that the adult existed as a miniature—a homunculus—in the microscopic material that initiates the embryo. But in 1759 the German physician Caspar Friedrick Wolff firmly introduced into biology the interpretation that undifferentiated materials gradually become specialized, in an orderly way, into adult structures. Although this epigenetic process is now accepted as characterizing the general nature of development in both plants and animals, many questions remain to be solved. The French physician Marie François Xavier Bichat declared in 1801 that differentiating parts consist of various components called tissues; with the subsequent statement of the cell theory, tissues were resolved into their cellular constituents. The idea of epigenetic change and the identification of structural components made possible a new interpretation of differentiation. It was demonstrated that the egg gives rise to three essential germ layers out of which specialized organs, with their tissues, subsequently emerge. Then, following his own discovery of the mammalian ovum, von Baer in 1828 usefully applied this information when he surveyed the development of various members of the vertebrate groups. At this point, embryology, as it is now recognized, emerged as a distinct subject.

The concept of cellular organization had an effect on embryology that continues to the present day. In the 19th century, cellular mechanisms were considered essentially to be the basis for growth, differentiation, and morphogenesis, or molding of parts. The distribution of the newly formed cells of the rapidly dividing zygote (fertilized egg) was precisely followed to provide detailed accounts not only of the time and mode of germ layer formation but also of the contribution of these layers to the differentiation of tissues and organs. Such descriptive information provided the background for experimental work aimed at elucidating the role of chromosomes and other cellular constituents in differentiation. About 1895, before the formulation of the chromosomal theory of heredity, Theodor Boveri demonstrated that chromosomes show continuity from one cell generation to the next. In fact, biologists soon concluded that in all cells arising from a fertilized egg, half the chromosomes are of maternal and half of paternal origin. The discovery of the constant transmission of the original chromosomal endowment to all cells of the body served to deepen the mystery surrounding the factors that determine cellular differentiation.

The present view is that differential activity of genes is the basis for cellular and tissue differentiation; that is, although the cells of a multicellular body contain the same genetic information, different genes are active in different cells. The result is the formation of various gene products, which regulate the functional and structural differentiation of cells. The actual mechanism involved in the inactivation of certain genes and the activation of others, however, has not yet been established. That cells can move extensively throughout the embryo and selectively adhere to other cells, thus starting tissue aggregations, also contributes to development as does the fate of cells—i.e., certain ones continue to multiply, others stop, and some die.

Research methods in embryology now exploit many experimental situations: both unicellular and multicellular forms; regeneration (replacement of lost parts) and normal development; and growth of tissues outside and inside the host. Hence, the processes of development can be studied with material other than embryos; and the study of embryology has become incorporated into the more inclusive subdiscipline of developmental biology.

Evolutionism

Darwin was not the first to speculate that organisms can change from generation to generation and so evolve, but he was the first to propose a mechanism by which the changes are accumulated. He proposed that heritable variations occur in conjunction with a never-ending competition for survival and that the variations favouring survival are automatically preserved. In time, therefore, the continued accumulation of variations results in the emergence of new forms. Because the variations that are preserved relate to survival, the survivors are highly adapted to their environment. To this process Darwin gave the apt name natural selection.

Many of Darwin’s predecessors, notably Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, were willing to accept the idea of species variation, even though to do so meant denying the doctrine of special creation and the static-type species of Linnaeus. But they argued that some idealized perfecting principle, expressed through the habits of an organism, was the basis of variation. The contrast between the romanticism of Lamarck and the objective analysis of Darwin clearly reveals the type of revolution provoked by the concept of natural selection. Although mechanistic explanations had long been available to biologists—forming, for example, part of Harvey’s explanation of blood circulation—they did not pervade the total structure of biological thinking until the advent of Darwinism.

There were two immediate consequences of Darwin’s viewpoints. One has involved a reappraisal of all subject areas of biology; reinterpretations of morphology and embryology are good examples. The comparative anatomy of the British anatomist Owen became a cornerstone of the evidence for evolution, and German anatomists provided the basis for the comment that evolutionary thinking was born in England but gained its home in Germany. The reinterpretation of morphology carried over into the study of fossil forms, as paleontologists sought and found evidence of gradual change in their study of fossils. But some workers, although accepting evolution in principle, could not easily interpret the changes in terms of natural selection. The German paleontologist Otto Schindewolf, for example, found in shelled mollusks called ammonites evidence of progressive complexity and subsequent simplification of forms. The American paleontologist George Gaylord Simpson, however, has been a consistent interpreter of vertebrate fossils by Darwinian selection. Embryology was seen in an evolutionary light when the German zoologist Ernst Haeckel proposed that the epigenetic sequence of embryonic development (ontogeny) repeated its evolutionary history (phylogeny). Thus, the presence of gill clefts in the mammalian embryo and also in less highly evolved vertebrates can be understood as a remnant of a common ancestor.

The other consequence of Darwinism—to make more explicit the origin and nature of heritable variations and the action of natural selection on them—depended on the emergence of the following: genetics and the elucidation of the rules of Mendelian inheritance; the concept of the gene as the unit of inheritance; and the nature of gene mutation. The development of these ideas provided the basis for the genetics of natural populations.

The subject of population genetics began with the Mendelian laws of inheritance and now takes into account selection, mutation, migration (movement into and out of a given population), breeding patterns, and population size. These factors affect the genetic makeup of a group of organisms that either interbreed or have the potential to do so; i.e., a species. Accurate appraisal of these factors allows precise predictions regarding the content of a given gene pool over significant periods of evolutionary time. From work involving population genetics has come the realization, eloquently documented by two contemporary American evolutionists, Theodosius Dobzhansky and Ernst Mayer, that the species is the basic unit of evolution. The process of speciation occurs as a gene pool breaks up to form isolated gene pools. When selection pressures similar to those of the original gene pool persist in the new gene pools, similar functions and the similar structures on which they depend also persist. When selection pressures differ, however, differences arise. Thus, the process of speciation through natural selection preserves the evolutionary history of a species. The record may be discerned not only in the gross, or macroscopic, anatomy of organisms but also in their cellular structure and molecular organization. Significant work now is carried out, for example, on the homologies of the nucleic acids and proteins of different species.

Genetics

The problem of heredity had been the subject of careful study before its definitive analysis by Mendel. As with Darwin’s predecessors, those of Mendel tended to idealize and interpret all inherited traits as being transmitted through the blood or as determined by various “humors” or other vague entities in animal organisms. When studying plants, Mendel was able to free himself of anthropomorphic and holistic explanations. By studying seven carefully defined pairs of characteristics—e.g., tall and short plants; red and white flowers, etc.—as they were transmitted through as many as three successive generations, he was able to establish patterns of inheritance that apply to all sexually reproducing forms. Darwin, who was searching for an explanation of inheritance, apparently never saw Mendel’s work, which was published in 1866 in the obscure journal of his local natural history society; it was simultaneously rediscovered in 1900 by three different European geneticists.

Further progress in genetics was made early in the 20th century, when it was realized that heredity factors are found on chromosomes. The term gene was coined for these factors. Studies by the American geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan on the fruit fly (Drosophila), moved animal genetics to the forefront of genetic research. The work of Morgan and his students established such major concepts as the linear array of genes on chromosomes; the exchange of parts between chromosomes; and the interaction of genes in determining traits, including sexual differences. In 1927 one of Morgan’s former students, Hermann Muller, used X rays to induce the mutations (changes in genes) in the fruit fly, thereby opening the door to major studies on the nature of variation.

Meanwhile, other organisms were being used for genetic studies, most notably fungi and bacteria. The results of this work provided insights into animal genetics just as principles initially obtained from animal genetics provided insight into botanical and microbial forms. Work continues not only on the genetics of humans, domestic animals, and plants but also on the control of development through the orderly regulation of gene action in different cells and tissues.

Cellular and molecular biology

Although the cell was recognized as the basic unit of life early in the 19th century, its most exciting period of inquiry has probably occurred since the 1940s. The new techniques developed since that time, notably the perfection of the electron microscope and the tools of biochemistry, have changed the cytological studies of the 19th and early 20th centuries from a largely descriptive inquiry, dependent on the light microscope, into a dynamic, molecularly oriented inquiry into fundamental life processes.

The so-called cell theory, which was enunciated about 1838, was never actually a theory. As Edmund Beecher Wilson, the noted American cytologist, stated in his great work, The Cell,

By force of habit we still continue to speak of the cell ‘theory’ but it is a theory only in name. In substance it is a comprehensive general statement of fact and as such stands today beside the evolution theory among the foundationstones of modern biology.

More precisely, the cell doctrine was an inductive generalization based on the microscopial examination of certain plant and animal species.

Rudolf Virchow, a German medical officer specializing in cellular pathology, first expressed the fundamental dictum regarding cells in his phrase omnis cellula e cellula (all cells from cells). For cellular reproduction is the ultimate basis of the continuity of life; the cell is not only the basic structural unit of life but also the basic physiological and reproductive unit. All areas of biology were affected by the new perspective afforded by the principle of cellular organization. Especially in conjunction with embryology was the study of the cell most prominent in animal biology. The continuity of cellular generations by reproduction also had implications for genetics. It is little wonder, then, that the full title of Wilson’s survey of cytology at the turn of the century was The Cell: Its Role in Development and Heredity.

The study of the cell nucleus, its chromosomes, and their behaviour served as the basis for understanding the regular distribution of genetic material during both sexual and asexual reproduction. This orderly behaviour of the nucleus made it appear to dominate the life of the cell, for by contrast the components of the rest of the cell appeared to be randomly distributed.

The biochemical study of life had helped in the characterization of the major molecules of living systems—proteins, nucleic acids, fats, and carbohydrates—and in the understanding of metabolic processes. That nucleic acids are a distinctive feature of the nucleus was recognized after their discovery by the Swiss biochemist Johann Friedrich Miescher in 1869. In 1944 a group of American bacteriologists, led by Oswald T. Avery, published work on the causative agent of pneumonia in mice (a bacterium) that culminated in the demonstration that deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the chemical basis of heredity. Discrete segments of DNA correspond to genes, or Mendel’s hereditary factors. Proteins were discovered to be especially important for their role in determining cell structure and in controlling chemical reactions.

The advent of techniques for isolating and characterizing proteins and nucleic acids now allows a molecular approach to essentially all biological problems—from the appearance of new gene products in normal development or under pathological conditions to a monitoring of changes in and between nerve cells during the transmission of nerve impulses.

Ecology

The harmony that Linnaeus found in nature, which redounded to the glory and wisdom of a Judaeo-Christian god, was the 18th-century counterpart of the balanced interaction now studied by ecologists. Linnaeus recognized that plants are adapted to the regions in which they grow, that insects play a role in flower pollination, and that certain birds prey on insects and are in turn eaten by other birds. This realization implies, in contemporary terms, the flow of matter and energy in a definable direction through any natural assemblage of plants, animals, and microorganisms. Such an assemblage, termed an ecosystem, starts with the plants, which are designated as producers because they maintain and reproduce themselves at the expense of energy from sunlight and inorganic materials taken from the nonliving environment around them (earth, air, and water). Animals are called consumers because they ingest plant material or other animals that feed on plants, using the energy stored in this food to sustain themselves. Lastly, the organisms known as decomposers, mostly fungi and bacteria, break down plant and animal material and return it to the environment in a form that can be used again by plants in a constantly renewed cycle.

The term ecology, first formulated by Haeckel in the latter part of the 19th century as “oecology” (from the Greek word for house, oikos), referred to the dwelling place of organisms in nature. In the 1890s various European and U.S. scientists laid the foundations for modern work through studies of natural ecosystems and the populations of organisms contained within them.

Animal ecology, the study of consumers and their interactions with the environment, is very complex; attempts to study it usually focus on one particular aspect. Some studies, for example, involve the challenge of the environment to individuals with special adaptations (e.g., water conservation in desert animals); others may involve the role of one species in its ecosystem or the ecosystem itself. Food-chain sequences have been determined for various ecosystems, and the efficiency of the transfer of energy and matter within them has been calculated so that their capacity is known; that is, productivity in terms of numbers of organisms or weight of living matter at a specific level in the food chain can be accurately determined (see biosphere).

In spite of advances in understanding animal ecology, this subject area of zoology does not yet have the major unifying theoretical principles found in genetics (gene theory) or evolution (natural selection).

Ethology

The study of animal behaviour (ethology) is largely a 20th-century phenomenon and is exclusively a zoological discipline. Only animals have nervous systems, with their implications for perception, coordination, orientation, learning, and memory. Not until the end of the 19th century did animal behaviour become free from anthropocentric interests and assume an importance in its own right. The British behaviorist C. Lloyd Morgan was probably most influential with his emphasis on parsimonious explanations—i.e., that the explanation “which stands lower in the psychological scale” must be invoked first. This principle is exemplified in the American Herbert Spencer Jennings’ pioneering work in 1906 on The Behavior of Lower Organisms.

The study of animal behaviour now includes many diverse topics, ranging from swimming patterns of protozoans to socialization and communication among the great apes. Many disparate hypotheses have been proposed in an attempt to explain the variety of behavioral patterns found in animals. They focus on the mechanisms that stimulate courtship in reproductive behaviour of such diverse groups as spiders, crabs, and domestic fowl; and on whole life histories, starting from the special attachment of newly born ducks and goats to their actual mothers or to surrogate (substitute) mothers. The latter phenomenon, called imprinting, has been intensively studied by the Austrian ethologist Konrad Lorenz. Physiologically oriented behaviour now receives much attention; studies range from work on conditioned reflexes to the orientation of crustaceans and the location and communication of food among bees; such diversity of material is one measure of the somewhat diffuse but exciting current state of these studies.

General trends

Zoology has become animal biology—that is, the life sciences display a new unity, one that is founded on the common basis of all life, on the gene pool–species organization of organisms, and on the obligatory interacting of the components of ecosystems. Even as regards the specialized features of animals—involving physiology, development, or behaviour—the current emphasis is on elucidating the broad biological principles that identify animals as one aspect of nature. Zoology has thus given up its exclusive emphasis on animals—an emphasis maintained from Aristotle’s time well into the 19th century—in favour of a broader view of life. The successes in applying physical and chemical ideas and techniques to life processes have not only unified the life sciences but have also created bridges to other sciences in a way only dimly foreseen by earlier workers. The practical and theoretical consequences of this trend have just begun to be realized.