Generator rating
The capacity of a synchronous generator is equal to the product of the voltage per phase, the current per phase, and the number of phases. It is normally stated in megavolt-amperes (MVA) for large generators or kilovolt-amperes (kVA) for small generators. Both the voltage and the current are the effective, or rms, values (equal to the peak value divided by Square root of√2).
The voltage rating of the generator is normally stated as the operating voltage between two of its three terminals—i.e., the phase-to-phase voltage. For a winding connected in delta, this is equal to the phase-winding voltage. For a winding connected in wye, it is equal to Square root of√3 times the phase-winding voltage.
The capacity rating of the machine differs from its shaft power because of two factors—namely, the power factor and the efficiency. The power factor is the ratio of the real power delivered to the electrical load divided by the total voltage–current product for all phases. The efficiency is the ratio of the electrical power output to the mechanical power input. The difference between these two power values is the power loss consisting of losses in the magnetic iron due to the changing flux, losses in the resistance of the stator and rotor conductors, and losses from the windage and bearing friction. In large synchronous generators, these losses are generally less than 5 percent of the capacity rating. These losses must be removed from the generator by a cooling system to maintain the temperature within the limit imposed by the insulation of the windings.
High-speed synchronous generators
Generators driven by high-speed steam turbines are almost always constructed with horizontal shafts. The rotor diameter is usually limited to a maximum of about one metre because of the high centrifugal forces produced. The length of the rotor may be several metres. The rotor shaft and the field structure are made of a solid alloy steel forging in which slots are machined to accept the field coils, as shown in . These coils are insulated typically with mica and glass laminate. The coils are held in place by nonmagnetic wedges in the tops of the slots.
The stator provides a path for the continuously varying magnetic flux. The stator core is therefore constructed of thin sheets, or laminations, of magnetic steel. The steel, being an electrical conductor, would tend to short-circuit the voltage induced in it if it were solid. Lamination breaks up the conducting path along the stator length and keeps the power losses in the stator steel at an acceptable value. Slots are punched around the inside periphery of the laminations to accommodate the stator coils. In large generators, each stator coil normally contains only one turn.
High-speed generators are enclosed within a closed cylindrical stator housing that extends between the bearings at the two ends. They are cooled by hydrogen gas circulating within the housing and also frequently through ducts within the stator conductors. Very large generators are cooled by circulating water through the stator and rotor conductors.
The ratings of synchronous generators for large power systems extend up to about 2,000 megavolt-amperes. Smaller power systems use generators of lower rating (e.g., 50 megavolt-amperes and up) since it is usually not desirable to have more than 10 percent of the total required system generation in one machine.
Waterwheel generators
Hydraulic turbines are of various types, the choice depending largely on the height of water fall and on the power rating. The range of speed for which hydraulic turbines give acceptable efficiency is much lower than for steam turbines. The rotational speed is generally in the range of 60 to 720 revolutions per minute. The construction of low-speed synchronous generators is substantially different from that of high-speed units. To produce power at 60 hertz, the number of rotor poles is in the range of 10 to 120 for the above speed range. For these machines the rotor poles are of the projecting, or salient, type. shows two poles of a 12-pole generator. Each pole, made of laminated magnetic steel, is encircled by a field coil. The pole is shaped so as to make the air-gap magnetic field distribution approximately sinusoidal.
Large hydraulic generators may have individual ratings in excess of 200 megavolt-amperes. They are mounted with a vertical shaft directly coupled to the turbine. The combination is usually supported on a single bearing, either above or below. The diameter is made relatively large to obtain a high peripheral velocity at low rotational speeds. The axial length of the generator is relatively short. The windings are frequently water-cooled. The rotor has to be designed to withstand a considerable overspeed condition that may arise if the generator loses its electrical load and there is a significant time delay in cutting off the water flow to the turbine.
Generators for motor vehicles
Vehicles such as automobiles, buses, and trucks require a direct-voltage supply for ignition, lights, fans, and so forth. In modern vehicles the electric power is generated by an alternator mechanically coupled to the engine. The alternator normally has a rotor field coil supplied with current through slip rings. The stator is fitted with a three-phase winding. A rectifier is used to convert the power from alternating to direct form. A regulator is used to control the field current so that the output voltage of the alternator-rectifier is properly matched to the battery voltage as the speed of the engine varies.