Renaissance philosophy

Renaissance philosophy, in the history of Western philosophy, the broadly philosophical speculation and classical scholarship that was pursued in western Europe from approximately the mid-15th century to the early 17th century. Among the most significant philosophers of the European Renaissance are Marsilio Ficino (1433–99), Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527), Jean Bodin (1530–96), Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463–94), and Giordano Bruno (1548–1600).

The character of philosophy—how it views its tasks and functions, how it defines itself, the special methods it invents for the achievement of philosophical knowledge, the literary forms it adopts and utilizes, its conception of the scope of its subject matter, and its changing criteria of meaning and truth—hinges on the mode of its successive responses to the challenges of the social structure within which it arises. Thus, Western philosophy in the Middle Ages (see medieval philosophy) was primarily a Christian philosophy, complementing the notion of divine revelation, reflecting the feudal order in its cosmology, and devoting itself in no small measure to the institutional tasks of the Roman Catholic Church. It was no accident that the major philosophical achievements of the 13th and 14th centuries were the work of churchmen who also happened to be professors of theology at the universities of Oxford and Paris.

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Western philosophy: Renaissance philosophy

The Renaissance presented a different set of problems and therefore suggested different lines of philosophical endeavour. What is called the European Renaissance followed the introduction of three novel mechanical inventions from the East: gunpowder, block printing from movable type, and the compass. The first was used to explode the massive fortifications of the feudal order and thus became an agent of the new spirit of nationalism that threatened the rule of churchmen—and, indeed, the universalist emphasis of the church itself—with a competing secular power. The second, printing, propagated knowledge widely, secularized learning, reduced the intellectual monopoly of an ecclesiastical elite, and restored the literary and philosophical classics of Greece and Rome. The third, the compass, increased the safety and scope of navigation, produced the voyages of discovery that opened up the Western Hemisphere, and symbolized a new spirit of physical adventure and a new scientific interest in the structure of the natural world.

Each of these inventions, with its wider cultural consequences, presented new intellectual problems and novel philosophical tasks within a changing political and social environment. As the power of a single religious authority was slowly eroded under the influence of the Protestant Reformation and as the prestige of the universal Latin language gave way to vernacular tongues, philosophers became less and less identified with their positions in the ecclesiastical hierarchy and more and more identified with their national origins. The works of St. Albertus Magnus (c. 1200–80), St. Thomas Aquinas (1224/25–74), St. Bonaventure (c. 1217–74), and John Duns Scotus (c. 1266–1308) had been basically unrelated to the countries of their birth, but the philosophy of Niccolò Machiavelli was directly related to Italian experience, just as the philosophy of Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) was directly related to English experience in the early modern period. Likewise, the thought of the early modern French philosopher and mathematician René Descartes (1596–1650) set the standard and tone of intellectual life in France for 200 years.

Knowledge in contemporary Western societies is conventionally divided between the natural (physical and biological) sciences, the social sciences, and the humanities. In the Renaissance, however, fields of learning had not yet become so sharply departmentalized; in fact, each of these divisions arose in the comprehensive and broadly inclusive area of philosophy. As the Renaissance mounted its revolt against the reign of religion and therefore reacted against the church, authority, and Scholasticism, there was a sudden blossoming of interest in problems centring on civil society, humankind, and nature. These three areas corresponded exactly to the three dominant strands of Renaissance philosophy: political philosophy, humanism, and the philosophy of nature.

Political philosophy

As secular authority replaced ecclesiastical authority and the dominant interest of the age shifted from religion to politics, it was natural that the rivalries of nation-states and their persistent crises of internal order should raise with renewed urgency philosophical problems, practically dormant since pre-Christian times, about the nature and moral status of political power. This new preoccupation with national unity, internal security, state power, and international justice stimulated the growth of political philosophy in Italy, France, England, and Holland.

Machiavelli, sometime state secretary of the Florentine republic, explored techniques for the seizure and retention of power in ways that seemed to exalt “reasons of state” above morality. His most famous work, Il Principe (1532; The Prince), and Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio (1531; Discourses on the First Ten Books of Livy), both published posthumously, effectively codified the actual practices of Renaissance diplomacy for the next century. In fact, Machiavelli was motivated by patriotic hopes for the ultimate unification of Italy and by the conviction that the moral standards of contemporary Italians needed to be elevated by restoring what he understood as the virtues of ancient Romans. More than half a century later, the French political philosopher Jean Bodin insisted that the state must possess a single, unified, and absolute power; he thus developed in detail the doctrine of national sovereignty as the source of all legal legitimacy.

In England, the early modern philosopher Thomas Hobbes, who was to become tutor to the future king Charles II (1630–85), developed the fiction that, in the “state of nature” that preceded civilization, “every man’s hand [was] raised against every other” and human life was accordingly “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.” A social contract was thus agreed upon to convey all private rights to a single sovereign in return for general protection and the institution of a reign of law. Because law is simply “the command of the sovereign,” Hobbes at once turned justice into a by-product of power and denied any right of rebellion except when the sovereign becomes too weak to protect the commonwealth or to hold it together.

In Holland, a prosperous and tolerant commercial republic in the 17th century, the issues of political philosophy took a different form. The Dutch East India Company commissioned a great jurist, Hugo Grotius (1583–1645), to write a defense of their trading rights and free access to the seas, and the resulting two treatises, Mare Liberum (1609; The Freedom of the Seas) and De Jure Belli ac Pacis (1625; On the Law of War and Peace), were the first significant codifications of international law. Their philosophical originality lay, however, in the fact that, in defending the rights of a small, militarily weak country against the powerful states of England, France, and Spain, Grotius was led to a preliminary investigation of the sources and validity of the concept of natural law, the notion that imperative considerations of natural justice and moral responsibility are inherent in human reason and immutable even against the willfulness of sovereign states and must serve as a check against the arbitrary exercise of vast political power.

In general, the political philosophy of the Renaissance and the early modern period was dualistic: it was haunted, even confused, by the conflict between political necessity and general moral responsibility. Machiavelli, Bodin, and Hobbes asserted claims that justified the actions of Italian despotism and the absolutism of the Bourbon and Stuart dynasties. Yet Machiavelli was obsessed with the problem of human virtue, Bodin insisted that even the sovereign ought to obey the law of nature (that is, to govern in accordance with the dictates of natural justice), and Hobbes himself found in natural law the rational motivation that causes a person to seek security and peace. In the end, Renaissance and early modern political philosophy advocated the doctrines of the Sophist Thrasymachus of Chalcedon (flourished late 5th century bce), who held that right is what is in the interests of the strong (a view sometimes formulated in the slogan “might makes right”), but it could never finally escape a twinge of Socratic conscience.

Humanism

The Renaissance was characterized by the revival of interest in mathematics, medicine, and classical literature. The study of mathematics and medicine sparked the scientific revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries, while the study of classical literature became the foundation of the philosophy of Renaissance humanism. Generally suspicious of science and indifferent to religion, humanism emphasized anew the centrality of human beings in the universe and their supreme value and importance. Characteristic of this emphasis was the De hominis dignitate oratio (1486; Oration on the Dignity of Man) by Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, an Italian Platonist philosopher and a leading member of the Platonic Academy of Florence, organized by the city’s ruler, Lorenzo de’ Medici (1449–92). But the new emphasis on personal responsibility and the possibility of self-creation as a work of art was in no small part a consequence of the rediscovery of a series of crucial classical texts, which served to reverse the trends of medieval learning. Renaissance humanism was predicated upon the victory of rhetoric over dialectic and of Plato (428/27–348/47 bce) over Aristotle (384–322 bce) as the cramped format of Scholastic philosophical method gave way to a Platonic discursiveness.

Much of this transformation had been prepared by Italian scholarly initiative in the early 15th century. Lorenzo Valla (1407–57), an antiauthoritarian humanist, used a recently discovered manuscript by the Roman rhetorician Quintilian (35–c. 96 ce), Institutio oratoria (“The Training of an Orator”), published shortly before Quintilian’s death, to create new forms of rhetoric and textual criticism. But even more important was the rebirth of an enthusiasm for the philosophy of Plato in Medici Florence and at the cultivated court of Urbino. Precisely to service this enthusiasm, Marsilio Ficino, head of the Platonic Academy of Florence, translated the entire Platonic corpus into Latin by the end of the 15th century.

Except in the writings of Pico della Mirandola and Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno, the direct influence of Platonism on Renaissance metaphysics is difficult to trace. The Platonic account of the moral virtues, however, was admirably adapted to the requirements of Renaissance education, serving as a philosophical foundation of the Renaissance ideal of the courtier and gentleman. But Plato also represented the importance of mathematics and the Pythagorean attempt to discover the secrets of the heavens, Earth, and the world of nature in terms of number and exact calculation. This aspect of Platonism influenced Renaissance science as well as philosophy. The scientists Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543), Johannes Kepler (1571–1630), and Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) owe a great deal to the general climate of Pythagorean confidence in the explanatory power of number.

Platonism also affected the literary forms in which Renaissance philosophy was written. Although very early medieval Platonists, such as St. Augustine of Hippo (354–430) and John Scotus Erigena (810–c. 877), occasionally used the dialogue form, later Scholastics abandoned it in favour of the formal treatise, of which the great “summae” of Alexander of Hales (c. 1170–1245) and Aquinas were pristine examples. The Renaissance rediscovery of the Platonic dialogues suggested the literary charm of this conversational method to humanists, scientists, and political philosophers alike. Bruno put forth his central insights in a dialogue, De la causa, principio e uno (1584; Concerning the Cause, Principle, and One); Galileo presented his novel mechanics in his Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo, tolemaico e copernicano 1632; (Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, Ptolemaic & Copernican); and even Machiavelli’s Dell’arte della guerra (1521; The Art of War) takes the form of a genteel conversation in a quiet Florentine garden.

Renaissance humanism was primarily a moral and a literary, rather than a narrowly philosophical, movement. It flowered in figures with broadly philosophical interests, such as Desiderius Erasmus (1469–1536), the erudite citizen of the world, and Thomas More (1477–1535), the learned but unfortunate chancellor of England’s King Henry VIII, as well as, in the next generation, the great French essayist Michel de Montaigne (1532–92). But the recovery of the Greek and Latin classics, which was the work of humanism, profoundly affected the entire field of Renaissance and early modern philosophy and science through the ancient schools of philosophy to which it once more directed attention. In addition to Platonism, the most notable of these schools were atomism, Skepticism, and Stoicism. The discovery of De rerum natura by the Latin poet and philosopher Lucretius (flourished 1st century bce) influenced Galileo, Bruno, and later the French mathematician and philosopher Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655), a modern Epicurean, through the insights into nature reflected in this work. The recovery of the Outlines of Pyrrhonism by the Greek philosopher Sextus Empiricus (flourished 3rd century ce), reprinted in 1562, produced a skeptical crisis in French philosophy that dominated the period from Montaigne to Descartes. And the Stoicism of Seneca (4 bce–65 ce) and Epictetus (55–c. 135) became almost the official ethics of the Renaissance, figuring prominently in the Essais (1580–88; Essays) of Montaigne, in the letters that Descartes wrote to Princess Elizabeth of Bohemia (1618–79) and to Queen Christina of Sweden (1626–89), and in the later sections of the Ethica (1675; Ethics) of Benedict de Spinoza (1632–77).

Philosophy of nature

Philosophy in the modern world is a self-conscious discipline. It has managed to define itself narrowly, distinguishing itself on the one hand from religion and on the other from exact science. But this narrowing of focus came about very late in its history—certainly not before the 18th century. The earliest philosophers of ancient Greece were theorists of the physical world; Pythagoras (c. 570—500–490 bce) and Plato were at once philosophers and mathematicians, and in Aristotle there is no clear distinction between philosophy and natural science. The Renaissance and early modern period continued this breadth of conception characteristic of the Greeks. Galileo and Descartes were at once mathematicians, physicists, and philosophers, and physics retained the name natural philosophy at least until the death of Isaac Newton (1642–1727).

Had the thinkers of the Renaissance been painstaking in the matter of definition (which they were not), they might have defined philosophy, on the basis of its actual practice, as the rational, methodical, and systematic consideration of humankind, civil society, and the natural world. Philosophy’s areas of interest would thus not have been in doubt, though the issue of what constitutes “rational, methodical, and systematic consideration” would have been extremely controversial. Because knowledge advances through the discovery and advocacy of new philosophical methods and because these diverse methods depend for their validity on prevailing philosophical criteria of truth, meaning, and importance, the crucial philosophical quarrels of the 16th and 17th centuries were at bottom quarrels about method. It is this issue, rather than any disagreement over subject matter or areas of interest, that divided the greatest Renaissance philosophers.

The great new fact that confronted the Renaissance was the immediacy, immensity, and uniformity of the natural world. But what was of primary importance was the new perspective through which this fact was interpreted. To the Scholastics of the Middle Ages, the universe was hierarchical, organic, and God-ordained. To the philosophers of the Renaissance, it was pluralistic, machinelike, and mathematically ordered. In the Middle Ages, scholars thought in terms of purposes, goals, and divine intentions; in the Renaissance, they thought in terms of forces, mechanical agencies, and physical causes. All of this had become clear by the end of the 15th century. Within the early pages of the notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), the great Florentine artist and polymath, occur the following three propositions:

• 1. Since experience has been the mistress of whoever has written well, I take her as my mistress, and to her on all points make my appeal.
• 2. Instrumental or mechanical science is the noblest and above all others the most useful, seeing that by means of it all animated bodies which have movement perform all their actions.
• There is no certainty where one can neither apply any of the mathematical sciences, nor any of those which are based upon the mathematical sciences.

Here are enunciated respectively (1) the principle of empiricism, (2) the primacy of mechanistic science, and (3) faith in mathematical explanation. It is upon these three doctrines, as upon a rock, that Renaissance and early modern science and philosophy were built. From each of Leonardo’s theses descended one of the great streams of Renaissance and early modern philosophy: from the empirical principle the work of the English philosopher Francis Bacon (1561–1626), from mechanism the work of Hobbes, and from mathematical explanation the work of Descartes.

Any adequate philosophical treatment of scientific method recognizes that the explanations offered by science are both empirical and mathematical. In Leonardo’s thinking, as in scientific procedure generally, there need be no conflict between these two ideals; yet they do represent two opposite poles, each capable of excluding the other. The peculiar accidents of Renaissance scientific achievement did mistakenly suggest their incompatibility, for the revival of medical studies on the one hand and the blooming of mathematical physics on the other emphasized opposite virtues in scientific methodology. This polarity was represented by the figures of Andreas Vesalius (1514–64) and Galileo.

Vesalius, a Flemish physician, astounded all of Europe with the unbelievable precision of his anatomical dissections and drawings. Having invented new tools for this precise purpose, he successively laid bare the vascular, neural, and muscular systems of the human body. This procedure seemed to demonstrate the virtues of empirical method, of experimentation, and of inductive generalization on the basis of precise and disciplined observation.

Only slightly later, Galileo, following in the tradition already established by Copernicus and Kepler, attempted to do for terrestrial and sidereal movement what Vesalius had managed for the structure of the human body—creating his physical dynamics, however, on the basis of hypotheses derived from mathematics. In Galileo’s work, all of the most original scientific impulses of the Renaissance were united: the interest in Hellenistic mathematics, the experimental use of new instruments such as the telescope, and the underlying faith that the search for certainty in science is reasonable because the motions of all physical bodies are comprehensible in mathematical terms. Galileo’s work also deals with some of the recurrent themes of 16th- and 17th-century philosophy: atomism (which describes the changes of gross physical bodies in terms of the motions of their parts), the reduction of qualitative differences to quantitative differences, and the resultant important distinction between “primary” and “secondary” qualities. The former qualities—including shape, extension, and specific gravity—were considered to be part of nature and therefore real. The latter—such as colour, odour, taste, and relative position—were taken to be simply the effect of the motions of physical bodies on perceiving minds and therefore ephemeral, subjective, and essentially irrelevant to the nature of physical reality.