casuistry

casuistry, in ethics, a case-based method of reasoning. It is particularly employed in field-specific branches of professional ethics such as business ethics and bioethics. Casuistry typically uses general principles in reasoning analogically from clear-cut cases, called paradigms, to vexing cases. Similar cases are treated similarly. In this way, casuistry resembles legal reasoning. Casuistry may also use authoritative writings relevant to a particular case.

(Read Peter Singer’s Britannica entry on ethics.)

Practitioners in various fields value casuistry as an orderly yet flexible way to think about real-life ethical problems. Casuistry can be particularly useful when values or rules conflict. For example, what should be done when a business executive’s duty to meet a client’s expectations collides with a professional duty to protect the public? Casuistry also helps clarify cases in which novel or complex circumstances make the application of rules unclear. Should e-mail receive the same privacy protection as regular mail? If someone develops an idea while working for one employer, is it ethical to use that idea to help a subsequent employer? Casuistry seeks both to illuminate the meaning and moral significance of the details in such cases and to discern workable solutions.

History

Greek and Roman philosophers, Jewish rabbis, Christian preachers and teachers, and Islamic jurists (see also Sharīʿah) are among those who have used casuistry to solve real-life moral puzzles. The Roman orator and philosopher Cicero wrote the first known “case book” on situations in which duties seem to conflict.

In Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries, members of the Jesuit religious order of the Roman Catholic Church produced an extensively developed form of casuistry that became known as “high casuistry.” Les Provinciales (1657; The Provincial Letters), by the 17th-century French philosopher and mathematician Blaise Pascal, criticized the misuse of casuistry as sophisticated excuse making. Following Pascal’s critique, casuistry fell into disrepute.

The rise of professional ethics led to renewed interest in casuistry in the early 20th century. Although contemporary casuists recognize the potential of self-interest and other forms of bias to corrupt casuistry, many authors affirm its usefulness in helping people with diverse beliefs reach workable agreements in difficult moral cases.

Application of casuistic reasoning

The basic elements of casuistic reasoning may be illustrated in the following scenario. A maintenance supply vendor visits the manager of a large apartment building and demonstrates the advantages of switching to energy-efficient lightbulbs. The vendor adds, “We’re having a special promotion right now. Everyone who orders 10 cases of bulbs gets a free emergency radio.” Is it ethical for the manager to order 10 cases and accept the gift?

A casuist might approach the scenario by identifying its morally significant features. Those features might include the value of the gift, the quality of the product being offered for sale, the availability of similar products from other vendors at a lower price, and the timing of the gift offer relative to the timing of the manager’s decision about whether to buy. The casuist might next identify any generally accepted rules or values involved in the case. A rule in the case of the manager might be, “Get the best value for the building owner’s money.”

At that point the casuist might look for analogous paradigm cases. One paradigm would involve a clearly unacceptable gift, such as an expensive piece of luggage offered to promote an overpriced shoddy product. A second paradigm would involve a generally acceptable gift, such as an inexpensive ballpoint pen given as a token of appreciation for purchasing a competitively priced high-quality product.

The casuist would compare the building manager’s case with the two paradigms. A closer resemblance to the paradigm involving an acceptable gift would argue in favour of letting the manager accept the radio. A closer resemblance to the opposite paradigm would argue against accepting the radio.

Casuistry’s attention to the details of cases can help open up a range of options for those caught in ethically murky situations. In the case of the building manager, the possibilities might include demanding a discount instead of the radio, asking for a delay to allow competitors’ products to be evaluated, or simply rejecting the radio. The moral and practical advantages and disadvantages of the options would then be discussed.

When examining complex issues, casuists may arrange and sort many cases to create a resource called a taxonomy. Treating similar cases similarly, casuists use taxonomies to develop general guidelines or policies.

Casuistry and other ethical methods

Casuistry departs from ethical approaches that work deductively from rules thought to have clear applications in all circumstances. Casuistry takes rules into account but begins with the moral and practical features of each case.

Casuistry also departs from approaches to ethics that rely solely on good character or virtuous motives. Instead, casuistry demands deliberation about how to put good character and virtuous motives into practice.

Some authors classify casuistry as a subset of applied ethics, or practical ethics. That is the branch of ethics that is concerned with the application of moral norms to practical problems. Others restrict the term applied ethics to deductive reasoning from principles to cases. Accordingly, those authors view casuistry as an alternative to applied ethics.

Like casuistry, “situationism” or “situation ethics” focuses on cases. Unlike casuistry, however, situationism uses no paradigm cases and views principles as, at most, guidelines. Situationism also departs from casuistry by viewing circumstances as unique and isolated rather than as continuous with broader moral experience.