coercion

coercion, threat or use of punitive measures against states, groups, or individuals in order to force them to undertake or desist from specified actions.

In addition to the threat of or limited use of force (or both), coercion may entail economic sanctions, psychological pressures, and social ostracism. The concept of coercion should be distinguished from persuasion, which entails getting another party to follow a particular course of action or behaviour by appealing to the party’s reason and interests, as opposed to threatening or implying punitive measures.

The use of coercion has, of course, been one of the key tools for acquiring dominion and sustaining governance by states, political groupings, and individuals. Vivid historical examples include the failed Athenian attempt at coercing Melos into giving up its neutrality during the Peloponnesian War by threatening the death and enslavement of the Melian population. While Thucydides recounted how the Athenians infamously carried out this threat, the attempt at coercion failed because it did not get the Melians to modify their behaviour, short of their total defeat and destruction. A more successful use of such coercive threats was dramatized by William Shakespeare in Henry V. Henry V threatened to subject the French port of Harfleur to pillage, rape, and massacre if it did not surrender in short order to his army. In this case, the use of coercion was successful in getting the city to surrender without a last-ditch fight.

Coercion in political theory

The use or threat of coercion has been central to international relations and domestic politics. This was again highlighted in the premodern political theories of Niccolò Machiavelli and Thomas Hobbes. Hobbes, in his Leviathan, famously portrayed the state as the “mortal god” whose coercive capacities instilled awe and obedience, leading in turn to peace and security. Max Weber drew directly upon Hobbes in providing his famous definition of the state as a political entity that enjoyed a monopoly of legitimate violence or coercion over a given territory. Following Weber, the contemporary sociologist and historian Charles Tilly has compared the process of state formation to organized crime. According to Tilly, at the core of state formation is the concentration of coercive power over a given territory and the subjugation of rival centres of coercive capacity.

Coercion in the study of international relations

In addition, the concept of coercion has been central to the postwar studies on deterrence, crisis management, and statecraft in the political science subfield of international relations. However, international relations theorists have not used the concept of coercion in a consistent and well-defined manner, leading to unfortunate confusion and contradiction in the literature. Pioneering work on the use of coercion in strategies of conflict was done by the American economist and Nobel Prize laureate Thomas Schelling. Schelling coined the term compellance to define the coercive threat or use of power in order to get an adversary to change its behaviour. Here the attempt to coerce or compel an adversary involves a bargaining and signaling process whereby, it is hoped, the adversary can be convinced that the cost of compliance is less onerous than that of defiance. Coercion is different from the use of brute force to completely defeat an adversary, because it aims to modify the behaviour of an opponent, ideally through threats and, at most, the limited and demonstrative use of force. Schelling further drew a clear distinction between the coercive use of compellance and that of deterrence. The strategy of deterrence seeks to maintain a particular status quo and mode of behaviour on the part of a potential adversary, rather than seeking its modification.

Alexander George built upon Schelling’s work in developing his concept of coercive diplomacy. However, his work evinces some of the prevailing contradictory and confusing uses of the terms coercion, persuasion, compellance, and deterrence. George insisted that coercive diplomacy is a defensive and deterrent strategy distinct from Schelling’s notion of compellance. This is because, in his use of the term, it does not entail offensive “blackmail strategies” designed to get an adversary to give up something of value. Rather, the use of coercive diplomacy is a defensive strategy to deter encroachments on the status quo. However, this definition begs the question of perception and how what one party may view as a defensive preservation of the status quo may be viewed by another as aggressive and aggrandizing behaviour.

The success of coercive strategies has had a mixed record in the modern era. The United States sought to use gradually escalating strategic bombing in order to coerce North Vietnam into giving up its attempt to forcibly reintegrate South Vietnam. However, the government of Ho Chi Minh, with wide popular support throughout Vietnam, was willing to bear the terrible costs of American bombing in order to reunify the country under its leadership. In the subsequent cases of South Africa under apartheid and of Libya, the use of economic sanctions as a tool of coercive diplomacy did manage to bring about the desired change in behaviour after a prolonged period. However, it should be noted that the resort to coercive force may prove counterproductive and invite countercoercive actions. American-led military interventions in the Middle East radicalized nationalist forces in the Muslim world, for instance, and some of these radical forces attempted punitive and coercive attacks against the United States.