Mass transit finance
Costs
The costs of providing mass transportation services are of two types, capital and operating. Capital costs include the costs of land, guideways, structures, stations, and rolling stock (vehicles); operating costs include labour to operate the vehicles, maintain the system, and manage the enterprise; energy; replacement parts; and liability costs (or insurance). The principal factors affecting the cost of providing mass transportation service are the type of technology used, particularly the nature of the guideway; the extent or size of the system, measured in terms of the length of the routes; and the peak passenger demand.
The choice of technology affects both capital and operating costs. Bus systems are less costly to buy than fixed-guideway technologies using steel-wheeled cars on steel rails or rubber-tired cars on concrete beams. Buses require more operators (one driver per bus), and they do not benefit from automation, whereas only one or two operators can run a 10-car train carrying 1,000 passengers, and some rail systems are nearly fully automated.
Mass transportation systems that operate on guideways separated from other traffic are more expensive because of guideway costs but are also faster, safer, and more reliable. Guideways can cost $10 million per mile at ground level in low-density areas with occasional street crossings or as much as $200 million per mile in bored tunnels under densely developed cities. Light rail transit, designed to operate singly or in trains up to four units long, can be used on guideways separated from other traffic for high-speed sections and intermingled with street traffic in downtowns or near stations. This flexibility can make light rail less expensive, and service can be brought closer to the origins and destinations of travelers. Light rail stations can simply be stopping points marked with signs or separate stations with protected waiting areas. They may be a few blocks or as much as a mile apart.
Rail rapid transit systems use heavier cars designed to operate in trains of up to 10 or 12 cars. They are used on exclusive guideways, often in tunnels or on elevated structures, and their average speeds (including station stops) may approach 30 mile/h. Rapid transit stations themselves can be costly structures, either off-street or underground, typically spaced at one-half- to one-mile intervals. Some communities have commuter rail systems, descendants of older intercity rail lines, which connect distant suburbs with downtown areas. The technology is identical or similar to intercity passenger trains, with diesel-electric locomotives pulling unpowered coaches. Speeds are high (35–40 mile/h average), stations are 2–5 miles apart, and guideways are separated from street traffic, with occasional street crossings at grade level.
The size of the mass transportation operation during the peak period is also a major determinant of costs. For example, 4,800 people can be carried in one corridor during the rush hour with buses operating one minute apart (60 buses per hour), each carrying a standing load of 80 persons. To provide each traveler with a seat (offering better-quality service), each bus would carry only 50 persons, and 96 buses per hour would be needed.
The actual number of buses to be purchased (and the number of drivers required) would depend on how long it would take a bus to make a round-trip. This depends on the length of the route (longer routes take more time and would require more buses), as well as the average speed (faster routes would allow buses to get back to the starting point sooner, requiring fewer buses). In the above example, if a route were 5 miles long (round-trip) and the bus made an average speed of 10 mile/h, it would take one-half hour to make a round-trip. If one bus were needed every minute, then 30 buses would be required, because the first bus would get back to the starting point one minute after the 30th bus left. To give each passenger a seat, one bus would be needed every 37.5 seconds (96 buses per hour), so 48 vehicles would be required.
This illustrates the way both capital and operating costs are affected by the number of passengers to be carried in a given time period, the route length, the average operating speed, and policies on crowding (whether or not each passenger gets a seat). If the transit operator buys 48 buses to serve this route, many will be idle during the midday and evening, because travel volumes will be much lower in those periods. Yet the capital cost of the buses cannot be reduced if the rush hour demand is to be met. At least 48 drivers will be required, many of whom will not be occupied outside the peak travel periods. If the morning and evening rush periods are widely separated in time, it may be necessary to hire two sets of drivers or to ask drivers to work split shifts—for example, four hours during the morning rush and four more hours in the late afternoon. Workers may demand wage premiums if the spread between the start and finish of the workday is excessively long. This illustrates the inherent inefficiencies in transit services, because they must be designed to meet peak-period travel needs. Mass transportation services that have higher capacity (passengers per hour) and offer faster, more reliable service (e.g., rail rapid transit) are more costly, in terms of both capital and operating costs, than lower-capacity, slower services (e.g., buses). To make decisions about investing in new mass transportation services, it is useful to examine the cost per passenger carried as well as the total cost to implement and operate a system. Analyses show that fixed-guideway transit requires much higher corridor travel demands (perhaps 10,000 to 20,000 passengers per hour or more) to reduce the unit cost below that of light rail or bus systems. Such demand densities are found only in larger cities, and, as the trend toward suburban growth and the spreading of travel demand over regions continues, there are fewer locations where large investments in rail transit can be justified.
Revenues
Transit costs are paid from passenger fares and, in most developed countries, public subsidies. The most common way to collect passenger fares is by cash payment on the vehicle (for bus and light rail systems without closed stations) or upon entry to the station (for systems requiring entry through closed stations). Normally, the driver collects fares, although some intensively used bus and light rail systems carry conductors on the vehicles to collect fares and make change. Because making change slows the boarding process, most American systems require prepaid tokens or exact fares. It is more common in European cities to use an honour fare system, in which the passenger purchases a ticket before entering the vehicle, cancels that ticket using an on-board machine, and presents the ticket to fare inspectors on request. While only 2 to 10 percent of the passengers may be checked for valid tickets, fare evasion is low because fines for improper tickets are high and are collected immediately.
Monthly, semimonthly, and even daily passes are sold on many systems, which keeps fare purchase off the vehicle and makes the process of checking for prepayment fast. The monthly pass is particularly convenient for frequent riders, for it does not require having the correct change, and unlimited rides are allowed, so transit riding is encouraged. Many communities in the United States and Europe offer substantial discounts for monthly passes, because passes reduce fare collection costs and encourage transit use. Reduced-price fares are commonly offered to students, the elderly, and handicapped persons.
To make prices more equitable, some transit operators vary charges for different trips. Distance-based fares, proportional to the length of the trip, are a better reflection of the cost of service, and travelers tend to accept the idea that they should pay more for longer trips. The disadvantage of distance-based fares is that the operator must distinguish travelers by their trip lengths, which is done by checking fares when passengers enter and leave the system. This makes fare collection more time-consuming and costly, particularly if the validation is done by conductors or fare clerks. Modern systems use magnetically encoded fare cards read by computer-controlled turnstiles when passengers enter and leave the transit system. When travelers buy fare cards, the amount of their purchase is encoded on the card, and this balance is decreased by an appropriate amount for each trip.
Some transit operators charge differently by time of day, based on two concepts: first, the cost to provide transit service is higher during the rush-hours because equipment and personnel requirements are greater then; second, most rush-hour trips are for the purpose of going to and from work, and travelers are willing to pay more for these because of the monetary reward they get for the trip. Automated fare collection facilitates time-of-day pricing as well as distance-based fares.