new liberalism

new liberalism, in British history, a body of distinctive legislation on social welfare enacted between 1906 and the outbreak of World War I. Herbert Louis Samuel, Winston Churchill, and David Lloyd George were three of the government leaders most directly associated with its implementation.

The new liberal worldview

The new liberal reforms were not the outcome simply of pressure from working people for increased social security. Wider perceptions of economic decline, in comparison with Germany and the United States, and awareness of the persistence of poverty and ill health were fueling anxieties over the condition of British society. More fundamentally, a shift was taking place in the ways in which people conceived of the relationship between state and society, and new liberalism was a political response to that change. Older conceptions of the state as reactively regulative of the spontaneous lives of its citizens (as it was for John Stuart Mill and Herbert Spencer) were facing explicit challenges from the social thought of the idealist philosophers Thomas Hill Green, David Ritchie, and Bernard Bosanquet, which was echoed strongly in the Fabian socialism of Beatrice and Sidney Webb, George Bernard Shaw, and others. For those thinkers, the state and its citizens were part of a moral or organic unity, “society.” In particular, society was a unity in which governments and “successful” citizens had the (hitherto neglected) power through social action to constitute, and thereby enhance (and not merely regulate), the social, moral, and material lives of the poor. The state could take control of the direction and pace of social evolution or even directly create a “good society” through deliberate policies.

The new liberal reforms were not part of an unfolding process in which they could be regarded as a necessary step toward the British welfare state of the 1940s. Rather, they represented particular Liberal Party incorporations of idealist social thought, especially its organic view of social problems and its attempt to solve the latter through character building.

New liberal policies

Herbert Louis Samuel, who was familiar with those ideas, argued in 1895 that classical liberalism, as based on Jeremy Bentham’s utilitarianism and Adam Smith’s economics, was “sapped and raddled.” In the Progressive Review for December 1896, he characterized the “newer Liberal school” as favouring an extension of the powers of the state

to enforce, whenever possible, such conditions of employment as the public conscience approves as just, to improve the surroundings of working-class life, to render the resources of education equally available for the poor and the rich, to alleviate the miseries of unemployment and the destitution of the old, to reform the system of land tenure, to take under public control any industry which it is found can be managed in that way with greater advantage to the community, and to provide a fair standard of comfort for all who are in State employ.

His Liberalism of 1902 called for old-age pensions, labour exchanges (job-placement organizations), and workers’ compensation, all prefiguring actual legislation. The state was to be the agent of the community.

Winston Churchill emphasized mitigation of the consequences of market failure, with provision of a minimum below which persons cannot fall yet above which they may compete with vigour. In 1901 he described B. Seebohm Rowntree’s Poverty: A Study of Town Life as making his hair stand on end. Rowntree’s research in York had found that the poverty of the people there extended to nearly one-fifth of the population; a sizable number had less food to eat than the paupers in the York Poor Law Union. Seven years later, as president of the Board of Trade in the Liberal government of Herbert H. Asquith, he declared his dedication to new liberal innovations and outlined a two-year plan, giving pride of place to his own interests: labour exchanges and unemployment insurance, national infirmity insurance, state industries (afforestation and roads), a modernized poor law, railway amalgamation with state control and guarantee, and compulsory education until age 17.

The Liberal government formed in 1906 undertook a range of innovations. In that year local authorities gained powers to provide meals for needy schoolchildren, and in 1907 school medical inspection of children was introduced. In 1908 the Children Act (owing much to Samuel) abolished the committal of children to prison, instituted a system of juvenile courts, and gave some protection to children suffering from parental neglect. Samuel was involved too in the Prevention of Crime Act (1908), which established a national system of Borstals for reformatory education; in the authorization in 1910 of vocational guidance in schools; and in the Probation of Offenders Act of 1907, which effectively inaugurated probation in Britain.

In 1908 old-age pensions were enacted (pressure for which dated back 30 years). They were for people older than age 70, and they were means-tested, noncontributory, and paid through the post office. In the area of work there was legislation on workers’ compensation provisions, on labour exchanges to promote the “fluidity” of labour (owing much to the leadership of Churchill and William Beveridge), and on regulation in certain trades of wages and hours worked.

The National Insurance Act of 1911 was especially notable. It introduced two independent contributory schemes of health and unemployment insurance. Both involved a tripartite financial structure, in which contributions for each insured person came from the insured person, the employer, and the state. The health insurance scheme was administered through “approved societies” (mutual-benefit, or “friendly,” societies, together with trade unions and commercial insurance companies), but unemployment insurance was directly undertaken by the state (though with provision for the involvement of trade unions). Insurance was compulsory for all workers earning up to the point income tax became payable, but selection of the approved society was a personal matter. Doctors providing the medical benefit were organized into panels, by a separate administration.

Statutory unemployment insurance, planned in a symbiotic relationship with the provisions of the Labour Exchanges Act of 1909, was virtually without precedent anywhere. The experimental scheme (associated with Churchill, with assistance from Beveridge) was confined initially to trades without casual employment and where unemployment was cyclical, temporary, and predictable (such as building, shipbuilding, mechanical engineering, iron founding, and construction of vehicles). It was markedly less controversial than health insurance.