Philosophy and politics

History

Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, history was the branch of literature in which the most expert and the most enduring prose was written. It only recovered its supreme rank in nonfictional prose in the 18th century. Earlier, however, at the beginning of the 16th century, in Florence, Italy, Niccolò Machiavelli and Francesco Guicciardini prepared the way for history to become great literature by marrying it to the nascent science of politics and by enlarging its scope to include elements of the philosophy of history. In the 18th century Voltaire, tersely and corrosively, and Edward Gibbon, with more dignity, established history again as one of the great literary arts. In the 19th century, their lessons were taken to heart, as writers and readers realized that, in Thomas Carlyle’s words, “every nation’s true Bible is its history.” In some nations, historians, together with epic and political poets, instilled into the people a will to recover the national consciousness that had been stifled or obliterated. Macaulay’s ambition, to see history replace the latest novel on a lady’s dressing table, was endorsed as an eminently reasonable and beneficent ambition by scholars throughout the 19th century. After an eclipse during the first half of the 20th century, when erudition and distrust of elaborate style prevailed, the poetry of history was again praised by the most scrupulous practitioners of that discipline. Poetry, in that context, does not mean fiction or unfaithfulness to facts, or a mere prettification, which would be tantamount to falsification; rather, it is the recognition that, as historian G.M. Trevelyan proclaimed, “The appeal of history to us all is in the last analysis poetic.” Few historians today would wholly agree with the once sacrosanct formula of Leopold von Ranke (1795–1886) that their task is to record the past as it really took place. They well know that, for modern history, facts are so plentiful and so very diverse that they are only meaningful insofar as the historian selects from them, places them in a certain order, and interprets them. After World War II, as history drew increasingly on sociology, anthropology, political and philosophical speculation, and psychoanalysis, the conviction that objectivity could be maintained by a scholar dealing with the past was questioned and in large measure renounced. The Italian philosopher Benedetto Croce’s laconic warning that all history is contemporary history (i.e., bound to the historian’s time and place, hence likely to be replaced by another one after a generation) came to be generally accepted. Nietzsche, who had sharply questioned the historical methods of his German countrymen in the 1870s, stressed the need to relate history to the present and to present it in a living and beautiful form, if it is to serve the forces of life. “You can only explain the past,” he said, “by what is highest in the present.”

In Germany, Italy, Spain, England, America, and most of all in France, where the vogue of sheer, and often indigestible, erudition was never wholeheartedly adopted, more literary talent may have gone into historical writing than into the novel or the short story. Many reasons account for the brilliance, and the impact, of this branch of nonfictional prose. Modern man has a powerful interest in origins—of civilization, of Christianity, of the world initiated by the Renaissance, or the French Revolution, or the rise of the masses. History invites an explanation of what is in terms of its genesis, not statically but in the process of becoming. The breadth of men’s curiosity has expanded significantly since the 18th century, when belief in the absolutes of religious faith tended to be supplanted by greater concern for the relative world in which men live, move, and exist. A primary factor in the increasing importance of history was the bewilderment concerning the revolutions that occurred in or threatened so many countries in the latter part of the 20th century. As fiction, philosophy, and the exact sciences failed to provide a plausible explanation, many anguished readers turned to the record of brutal change in earlier periods. The historians who addressed themselves to those immense subjects, with their myriad ramifications, often composed monumental works of a synthetical character, such as those of Arnold Toynbee or Henri Pirenne, but they also cultivated the essay. Sometimes these essays appeared as short and pregnant volumes of reflections, such as Isaiah Berlin’s Historical Inevitability (1954), sometimes in collections of articles that first appeared in magazines.