The war in the east

Chancellorsville

Beginning his turning movement on April 27, 1863, Hooker masterfully swung around toward the west of the Confederate army. Thus far he had outmaneuvered Lee, but Hooker was astonished on May 1 when the Confederate commander left a small part of his force in Fredericksburg and suddenly moved the bulk of his army directly against him. “Fighting Joe” lost his nerve and pulled back to Chancellorsville, Virginia, in the Wilderness, where the superior Federal artillery could not be used effectively.

Lee followed up on May 2 by splitting his army and sending Jackson on a brilliant flanking movement against Hooker’s exposed right. Bursting like a thunderbolt upon Oliver O. Howard’s XI Corps late in the afternoon, Jackson crushed this wing. While scouting the Federal forces that night, however, Jackson was accidentally shot by his own pickets and died of complications several days later. Lee resumed the attack on the morning of May 3 and slowly pushed back Hooker, who was knocked insensible by Southern artillery fire but refused to surrender his command even temporarily. That afternoon Sedgwick drove Jubal Early’s Southerners from Marye’s Heights at Fredericksburg, but Lee countermarched his weary troops, fell upon Sedgwick at Salem Church, and forced him back to the north bank of the Rappahannock. Lee then returned to Chancellorsville to resume the main engagement, but Hooker, though he had 37,000 fresh troops available, gave up the contest on May 5 and retreated across the river to his old position opposite Fredericksburg. The Federals suffered 17,278 casualties at Chancellorsville, while the Confederates lost 12,764.

It was a tremendous victory for Lee. His actions—splitting his force twice in the face of an adversary double his size—are still studied in military academies for their vision and audacity. Lee emerged from the battle believing that his army, even without Jackson, was invincible, and his men emerged from the fight believing that they were invincible as long as Lee was their commander. Lee’s stunning success at Chancellorsville laid the groundwork for Lee’s second invasion of the North and some of the fateful decisions he would make at Gettysburg.

Gettysburg

While both armies were licking their wounds and reorganizing, Hooker, Lincoln, and Halleck debated Union strategy. They were thus engaged when Lee headed north again on June 5, 1863. What his ultimate target may have been remains a historical mystery; he never told anyone. His advance elements moved down the Shenandoah Valley toward Harpers Ferry, brushing aside small Federal forces near Winchester. Marching through Maryland into Pennsylvania, the Confederates reached Chambersburg and turned eastward. They occupied York and Carlisle and menaced Harrisburg. Meanwhile, the dashing Confederate cavalryman J.E.B. (“Jeb”) Stuart set off on a questionable weeklong ride around the Federal army and was unable to join Lee’s main army until the second day at Gettysburg.

Hooker—on unfriendly terms with Lincoln and especially Halleck—moved the Federal forces northward, keeping between Lee’s army and Washington. Reaching Frederick, Hooker requested that the nearly 10,000-man Federal garrison at Harpers Ferry be added to his field army. When Halleck refused, Hooker resigned his command and was succeeded June 28 by the steady George Gordon Meade, the commander of V Corps. Meade was granted a greater degree of freedom of movement than Hooker had enjoyed, and he carefully felt his way northward, looking for the Confederates.

Learning to his surprise the same day that Meade took command that the Federal army was north of the Potomac, Lee hastened to concentrate his far-flung legions. Hostile forces met unexpectedly at the important crossroads town of Gettysburg, in southern Pennsylvania, bringing on the greatest battle ever fought in the Western Hemisphere. Attacking on July 1 from the west and north with 28,000 men, Confederate forces finally prevailed after nine hours of desperate fighting against 18,000 Federal soldiers under John F. Reynolds. When Reynolds was killed, Abner Doubleday handled the outnumbered Federal troops, but the weight of Confederate numbers forced him back through the streets of Gettysburg to strategic Cemetery Ridge south of town, where Meade assembled the rest of the army that night.

On the second day of battle, Meade’s nearly 94,000 troops were ensconced in a strong fishhook-shaped defensive position running northward from the Round Top hills along Cemetery Ridge and then eastward around Culp’s Hill. Lee, with more than 71,000 troops, ordered James Longstreet to attack the Federals diagonally from Little Round Top northward and Richard S. Ewell to assail Cemetery Hill and Culp’s Hill. The Confederate attack, coming in the late afternoon and evening, saw Longstreet capture the positions known as the Peach Orchard, Wheat Field, and Devil’s Den on the Federal left in furious fighting but fail to seize the vital Little Round Top. Ewell’s later assaults on Cemetery Hill were repulsed, and he could capture only a part of Culp’s Hill.

On the morning of the third day, Meade’s right wing drove the Confederates from the lower slopes of Culp’s Hill and checked Stuart’s cavalry sweep to the east of Gettysburg in midafternoon. Then, in what has been called the greatest infantry charge in American history, Lee—against Longstreet’s advice—hurled nearly 15,000 soldiers under the command of Generals George E. Pickett, J. Johnston Pettigrew, and Isaac R. Trimble against the centre of Meade’s lines on Cemetery Ridge, following a fearful and deafening artillery duel of two hours. Despite heroic efforts, only several hundred Southerners temporarily breached the low rock wall at the Federals’ centre; the rest were shot down by Union cannoneers and riflemen, captured, or thrown back, suffering casualties of almost 60 percent. To Lincoln’s great consternation, Meade felt unable to counterattack, and Lee retreated into Virginia. The Confederates had lost 28,063 men at Gettysburg and the Federals 23,049.

After indecisive maneuvering and light actions in northern Virginia in the fall of 1863, the two armies went into winter quarters. Lee’s decisions on the third day have long been the subject of debate but are best understood in the context of coming just a few weeks after his greatest victory, at Chancellorsville. But the consequences of Gettysburg, while not ultimately decisive, were catastrophic nonetheless. Lee had lost a number of his hardened veterans along with many of his generals and colonels, and they could not be replaced. Never again would Lee be able to mount a full-scale invasion of the North with his entire army. Instead, he would have to spend the rest of the war on the defensive.