Settlement patterns
Mali is traditionally divided into the nomadic region of the Sahel and the Sahara and the agricultural region of the Sudanic zone. Roughly three-fifths of the population is rural, typically living in thatched dwellings grouped together in villages of between 150 and 600 inhabitants and surrounded by cultivated fields and grazing lands.
The older towns, such as Djenné, Timbuktu, Gao, and Ségou, are built in the Sudanese style of architecture, characterized by tall mud walls with wooden limbs and planks that stick out from the surface, providing a frame for the mud walls but also creating a type of ladder permitting yearly replastering; inside, a series of wooden columns holds up the roof, which has small openings to allow in some sunlight. The Djenné mosque, the epitome of Sudanese architecture, is the largest mud building in the world. Timbuktu (founded about 1100 ce) was a centre of commerce and learning during the time of the Mali (13th–16th century) and Songhai (15th–16th century) empires; later, trans-Saharan trade declined in favour of trade along the Atlantic coast as desertification spread southward, and the town retained only a shadow of its former glory by the early 20th century. The newer towns, such as Bamako, Kayes, San, and Kati, consist of a central business district, around which residential districts are grouped.
Demographic trends
The population of Mali has been growing at a rate that is higher than the world average but is comparable to the regional average. Life expectancy at birth, still comparatively low, has risen gradually since 1990 for both males and females, and there has been a slight decline in both birth and death rates, though they remain high by both world and African standards. The population is heavily weighted toward the young, as are most African populations. Population densities throughout Mali are low; in the more remote eastern and northeastern areas, densities are only about three persons per square mile (one per square kilometre). These have long been regions of sparse population, but the droughts of the 1970s and ’80s led many of Mali’s Tuareg and other groups either to migrate to the towns or, if their herds managed to survive, to find new grazing lands farther south in Mali or in neighbouring Burkina Faso. Predictably, there has been a major increase in the permanent urban population, which now accounts for roughly two-fifths of the total population. Urban unemployment and underemployment are high, however. Where opportunities exist, Malians migrate to France and other European countries for education and employment.
Economy
Mali’s economy is overwhelmingly agricultural. With the northern half of the country occupied by the Sahara, most human activity is concentrated in the more southerly regions, in particular in the valleys of the Niger and Sénégal rivers and their tributaries. Subsistence agriculture and livestock raising characterize domestic activities, although many people supplement their income by growing cash crops such as cotton and by seasonal migration to Côte d’Ivoire and Senegal. Change in the rural sector has been limited by an unfavourable climate, periodic droughts since the late 1960s, and low levels of technology.
The industrial and natural resource sectors have not been developed fully. Industry concentrates largely on food processing for domestic use, while advancement in the exploitation of extensive mineral resources is slow. Foreign exchange is obtained chiefly from the export of primary commodities that are vulnerable to volatile world markets and foreign-currency fluctuations. Revenue is insufficient to cover the cost of Mali’s imports, notably the high-value goods from France and other Western nations. In addition to its other problems, Mali has suffered severely from resource mismanagement, and the national debt has grown rapidly because of Mali’s dependency on foreign aid.
At the time of independence in 1960, the government adopted a socialist economic policy. State companies and rural cooperative societies were organized to regulate both the production and the distribution of goods. Since the first coup d’état in 1968, socialist policy has been mitigated by the encouragement of privatization, a process that has accelerated since the institution of democracy in 1992.
Bilateral external aid to Mali is provided largely by France, the United States, other European Union countries, and the countries of OPEC. International aid is granted by such organizations as the United Nations, the European Development Fund, and the United Nations Development Programme. Since 1981 the Malian government has responded to pressures from the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and aid donors to encourage private investment and enterprise, liberalize domestic markets, and generally reduce state control. The country benefited from several debt-relief plans in the 1990s and 2000s, including the 2005 IMF plan that canceled 100 percent of Mali’s debt to that organization.
Agriculture, forestry, and fishing
Subsistence and commercial agriculture are the bases of the Malian economy. Some four-fifths of the working population is engaged in subsistence agriculture, but the government supports the development of commercial products. An agricultural area of major importance is the inland Niger delta. Millet, rice, wheat, and corn (maize), as well as yams and cassava (manioc), are the main subsistence crops, while cotton is an important commercial crop; peanuts (groundnuts), sugarcane, tobacco, and tea are also grown for market. Market gardens produce a variety of vegetables and fruits, including cabbages, turnips, carrots, beans, tomatoes, bananas, mangoes, and oranges. Irrigation projects have been developed on the Niger near the towns of Ségou and Mopti. Livestock is commercially important; the major areas for livestock raising (cattle, sheep, and goats) are the Sahel and the region around Macina. Fishing is also of economic significance, although this sector has declined since the 1980s. Still, Mali is one of the largest producers of fish in western Africa. The inland delta is a particularly important fishing ground, though periods of drought have hindered development of these fisheries. Large-scale dam construction and environmental pollution have also hindered this sector.