Foreign policy

Alexander II was more successful in his foreign policy. He ascended the throne at a moment of great exhaustion and humiliation for Russia. The Treaty of Paris (1856) substituted European control for a Russian protectorate over Turkish Christians; the Russian fleet in the Black Sea ceased to exist; the portion of Bessarabia nearest to the Black Sea was given to the Danubian principalities. However, foreign minister Aleksandr Mikhaylovich, Prince Gorchakov, eluded Napoleon III’s attempts to make an international question of the Polish uprising of 1863. Alexander then approached his relative William of Prussia and helped him against France in the foundation of the German Empire. Russia made use of the Franco-German War to repudiate the provisions of the Paris treaty forbidding Russia to construct naval arsenals and to keep a fleet in the Black Sea (1870).

In 1872 the German, Austrian, and Russian emperors met at Berlin and concluded the Three Emperors’ Alliance (or Dreikaiserbund), without any formal treaty being signed. The Russo-Austrian and the Russo-German secret military conventions concluded on October 22, 1873, were by-products of the Berlin meeting, but they seemingly had no effect on the subsequent course of events. In 1875 there were persistent, though unfounded, reports of an impending German attack on France. Gorchakov, much to German chancellor Otto von Bismarck’s annoyance, assumed the role of champion of France and European peace and claimed credit for averting the imaginary conflagration. In the same year the Eastern Question was reopened by a rising of Christian Slavs in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

In May 1876 the Bulgarian uprising began. Russia proposed cooperative action to the other powers, but Alexander ultimately decided to act alone. When Serbia and Montenegro declared war on Turkey, he met Franz Joseph, the ruler of Austria-Hungary, at Reichstadt (now Zákupy, Czech Republic) and, on July 13, 1876, concluded an agreement in which the possibilities of defeat, victory, or the collapse of Turkey were anticipated. In the event of a Turkish defeat, Austria-Hungary was to receive Bosnia and Herzegovina for occupation and administration; Russia was to be permitted to take back the lost portion of Bessarabia. A last attempt to formulate a European program of pacification of the Balkans was made by the powers at the Constantinople Conference (November 1876). After its failure Nikolay Pavlovich, Count Ignatyev, the Russian ambassador to Turkey, visited the European capitals to discuss the possibility of war. Austria and Britain spelled out the conditions of their neutrality: no attack on Constantinople; no Russian territorial acquisitions; no thrusting Serbia into war; Bulgaria, in case of its liberation, not to be under direct Russian control.

Thus, Russia was in advance deprived of possible gains in case of victory; indeed, British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli anticipated Russia’s defeat. Nevertheless, on April 24, 1877, Alexander went to war. Close to the walls of Constantinople, the Russian army was stopped by the British fleet, and the Treaty of San Stefano (March 3, 1878), favourable to the Bulgarians, was eviscerated at the Congress of Berlin. Russian public opinion, ignorant of the agreements concluded before the war, was much incensed against Bismarck, the so-called “honest broker.” Russia received the lost part of Bessarabia, as well as Kars, Ardahan, and Batumi in Transcaucasia.

Far more important were Alexander’s acquisitions in Asia. From 1864 his generals were active against Kyrgyz and Turkmen tribesmen who raided the unprotected frontier of Siberia. Russian soldiers marched up the Syr Darya, subjugated Bukhara, and from there, through the desert of Khiva, reached the Caspian shore. In 1867 the territory between Lake Ysyk and the Aral Sea was constituted into a province called Turkistan, and in 1884 another province under the title of Transcaspia was formed of territories between the Amu Darya and the Caspian Sea. Russia reached the frontiers of Afghanistan and Chinese Turkistan, while in the Far East, by the Treaty of Aigun (Aihui), it obtained from China territory running east from the Amur and Ussuri rivers to the Pacific seaboard. The naval base of Vladivostok was founded in 1860. Japan ceded Sakhalin in 1875 in exchange for two Kuril Islands. In 1867 Alaska was sold to the United States for $7.2 million.

Industrial progress

Under Alexander II Russia made further steps toward industrialization. The length of railway increased from 644 miles (1,036 km) in 1857 to 2,260 miles (3,550 km) in 1867 and to 11,070 miles (17,815 km) in 1876. Factory production value grew from 352 million rubles in 1863 to 909 million in 1879. During that period, the number of factory workers nearly doubled from 419,000 to 769,000. Grain exports increased from 52,800 bushels (1860–62) to 125,600 (1872–74). In 1850 and 1857 Russia experimented with freer trade, but it brought with it an excess of imports—a thing unusual in Russia—and finance minister Mikhail Reutern returned to the protectionist system espoused by Egor Frantsevich, Count Kankrin. Reutern also favoured the organization, for the first time in Russia, of private credit institutions. The 10 land banks which were in existence at the end of the 19th century were all founded in 1871–73; there were also 28 commercial banks (founded 1864–73), 222 municipal banks (1862–73), and 71 societies of mutual credit (1877).