Volcanic aerosols

Explosive volcanic eruptions have the potential to inject substantial amounts of sulfate aerosols into the lower stratosphere. In contrast to aerosol emissions in the lower troposphere (see above Aerosols), aerosols that enter the stratosphere may remain for several years before settling out, because of the relative absence of turbulent motions there. Consequently, aerosols from explosive volcanic eruptions have the potential to affect Earth’s climate. Less-explosive eruptions, or eruptions that are less vertical in orientation, have a lower potential for substantial climate impact. Furthermore, because of large-scale circulation patterns within the stratosphere, aerosols injected within tropical regions tend to spread out over the globe, whereas aerosols injected within midlatitude and polar regions tend to remain confined to the middle and high latitudes of that hemisphere. Tropical eruptions, therefore, tend to have a greater climatic impact than eruptions occurring toward the poles. In 1991 the moderate eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines provided a peak forcing of approximately –4 watts per square metre and cooled the climate by about 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) over the following few years. By comparison, the 1815 Mount Tambora eruption in present-day Indonesia, typically implicated for the 1816 “year without a summer” in Europe and North America, is believed to have been associated with a radiative forcing of approximately –6 watts per square metre.

While in the stratosphere, volcanic sulfate aerosol actually absorbs longwave radiation emitted by Earth’s surface, and absorption in the stratosphere tends to result in a cooling of the troposphere below. This vertical pattern of temperature change in the atmosphere influences the behaviour of winds in the lower atmosphere, primarily in winter. Thus, while there is essentially a global cooling effect for the first few years following an explosive volcanic eruption, changes in the winter patterns of surface winds may actually lead to warmer winters in some areas, such as Europe. Some modern examples of major eruptions include Krakatoa (Indonesia) in 1883, El Chichón (Mexico) in 1982, and Mount Pinatubo in 1991. There is also evidence that volcanic eruptions may influence other climate phenomena such as ENSO.

Variations in solar output

Direct measurements of solar irradiance, or solar output, have been available from satellites only since the late 1970s. These measurements show a very small peak-to-peak variation in solar irradiance (roughly 0.1 percent of the 1,366 watts per square metre received at the top of the atmosphere, for approximately 1.4 watts per square metre). However, indirect measures of solar activity are available from historical sunspot measurements dating back through the early 17th century. Attempts have been made to reconstruct graphs of solar irradiance variations from historical sunspot data by calibrating them against the measurements from modern satellites. However, since the modern measurements span only a few of the most recent 11-year solar cycles, estimates of solar output variability on 100-year and longer timescales are poorly correlated. Different assumptions regarding the relationship between the amplitudes of 11-year solar cycles and long-period solar output changes can lead to considerable differences in the resulting solar reconstructions. These differences in turn lead to fairly large uncertainty in estimating positive forcing by changes in solar irradiance since 1750. (Estimates range from 0.06 to 0.3 watt per square metre.) Even more challenging, given the lack of any modern analog, is the estimation of solar irradiance during the so-called Maunder Minimum, a period lasting from the mid-17th century to the early 18th century when very few sunspots were observed. While it is likely that solar irradiance was reduced at this time, it is difficult to calculate by how much. However, additional proxies of solar output exist that match reasonably well with the sunspot-derived records following the Maunder Minimum; these may be used as crude estimates of the solar irradiance variations.

In theory it is possible to estimate solar irradiance even farther back in time, over at least the past millennium, by measuring levels of cosmogenic isotopes such as carbon-14 and beryllium-10. Cosmogenic isotopes are isotopes that are formed by interactions of cosmic rays with atomic nuclei in the atmosphere and that subsequently fall to Earth, where they can be measured in the annual layers found in ice cores. Since their production rate in the upper atmosphere is modulated by changes in solar activity, cosmogenic isotopes may be used as indirect indicators of solar irradiance. However, as with the sunspot data, there is still considerable uncertainty in the amplitude of past solar variability implied by these data.

Solar forcing also affects the photochemical reactions that manufacture ozone in the stratosphere. Through this modulation of stratospheric ozone concentrations, changes in solar irradiance (particularly in the ultraviolet portion of the electromagnetic spectrum) can modify how both shortwave and longwave radiation in the lower stratosphere are absorbed. As a result, the vertical temperature profile of the atmosphere can change, and this change can in turn influence phenomena such as the strength of the winter jet streams.