Distribution of precipitation
Precipitation falling toward Earth’s surface may suffer several fates. It may be evaporated during its fall or after it reaches the ground surface. If the surface is covered with dense vegetation, much of the precipitation may be held on leaves and plant limbs and stems. This process is termed interception and may result in little water reaching the ground because the water may be directly evaporated from plant surfaces back into the atmosphere. If precipitation reaches the ground in the form of snow, it may remain there for some time. On the other hand, if precipitation falls as rain, it may evaporate, infiltrate the soil, be detained in small catchment areas, or become overland flow—a form of runoff. Overland flow (Ro) may be expressed in terms of intensity units, water depth per unit of time (e.g., centimetres per hour, or inches per hour), as
where P is precipitation rate and I is infiltration rate (rate of entry and downward movement of water into the soil profile). Infiltration rate will equal precipitation rate until the limit of the infiltration rate, or infiltration capacity, is reached. Soil infiltration rates are usually high at the beginning of a rain preceded by a dry spell and decrease as the rainfall continues. This change in rate is due to the clogging of soil pores by particles brought from above by the infiltrating rain and to the swelling of colloidal soil particles as they absorb water. Thus, rapid decreases in infiltration rates during a rain are more likely to occur in clay-rich soils than in sandy soils.
Between rainfall periods, water held in the soil as moisture is gradually lost by direct evaporation or by withdrawal by plants. Evaporation into the open atmosphere occurs at the surface of the soil, and the soil dries progressively downward with time. Water vapour in the soil diffuses upward, replenishing the evaporated water, and in turn is evaporated. The pumping of air into and out of the soil by atmospheric pressure changes enhances the movement of soil moisture upward. It has been shown that evaporation of a water droplet in the free atmosphere, and to a first approximation in various soil atmospheres, is proportional to the droplet surface area 4πr2 (square centimetres, where r is the radius of the droplet), the diffusional flux of water at the droplet surface, and the transfer of heat as the droplet evaporates. The equation for the rate of shrinkage of a water droplet due to evaporation is
where dr/dt is the rate of change in the radius of the water droplet (centimetres per second), D is the diffusion coefficient of water vapour in air (cubic centimetres per second), ρvo is the equilibrium vapour concentration at the droplet surface, Sp is the degree of undersaturation of water vapour in the environment, ρL is the density of liquid water (grams per cubic centimetre), and X is a dimensionless parameter depending on D, ρvo, temperature, the heat of evaporation of water vapour, the coefficient of thermal conductivity of air, and the spherical coordinate system necessary to define processes occurring to a spherical water droplet. Water droplets shrink—dr/dt < 0, evaporate—when the water vapour concentration in the environment (atmosphere or soil atmosphere) is less than the saturation water vapour concentration at the droplet surface. They grow—dr/dt > 0, condense—when the converse is true in the free atmosphere. The term dr/dt has negative values for evaporation and positive ones for condensation. Use of this equation shows, as an example, that it would take 23 minutes for a water droplet to shrink (evaporate) in size from 50 to 5 micrometres (0.002 to 0.0002 inch) in air at 10 °C (50 °F) and a water vapour undersaturation of 1 percent.
Besides simple evaporation of water from soils, water is also returned to the atmosphere by transpiration in plants. Plants draw water from soil moisture through their vast network of root hairs and rootlets. This water is carried upward through the plant trunk and branches into the leaves, where it is discharged as water vapour. The term evapotranspiration is used in climatic and hydrologic studies to include the combined water loss from Earth’s surface resulting from evaporation and transpiration. The maximum possible evapotranspiration is termed potential evapotranspiration and is governed by the available heat energy. It is taken as equal to evaporation from a large water surface and is generally much less than actual evapotranspiration. Actual evapotranspiration is never greater than precipitation except on irrigated land because of percolation of water into groundwater bodies and surface runoff.
The soil moisture zone gains water by precipitation and infiltration and loses water by evapotranspiration, overland flow, and percolation of water downward due to gravity into the groundwater zone. The contact between the groundwater zone (phreatic zone) and the overlying unsaturated zone (vadose zone) is called the groundwater table. The water balance equation for change of moisture storage in a soil is given as
where S is storage, P is precipitation, E is evaporation, and R is surface runoff plus percolation rate into the groundwater zone; all terms are in units of length per unit of time (e.g., millimetres per day, centimetres per month). In humid midlatitude climates where a strong contrast between winter and summer temperatures exists, there is an annual cycle of the water content of soils. The annual cycle of moisture in soil in Ohio, U.S., for example, demonstrates the processes controlling soil moisture. Of special importance is the fact that the soils are saturated in this temperate climate in the spring, and the evaporation rate is low because of the low input of radiant energy from the Sun. By contrast, in the summer, evaporation increases because of increasing solar radiation, and with the growth of plants so does transpiration. Soil moisture is reduced to very low levels at this time of year.
Groundwaters and river runoff
The term R in the water balance equation for change of soil moisture storage above represents groundwater and river runoff losses from the soil moisture zone. Water percolates from the soil moisture zone through the unsaturated (vadose) zone to the water table. Flow through the unsaturated zone is complicated. After a rainfall, water may form a nearly continuous phase in pores in this zone, but, with drying, the last amount of water is held in clusters at points of contact of solid grains and as thin films on solid surfaces. The flow paths of water become more tortuous, and the water-conducting properties decrease rapidly. Structured soils and fractured rock in the vadose zone may act as conduits for fluids to reach the water table. Because of the complex geometry of water contained in the unsaturated zone, the properties of water are expressed by means of empirical relationships. Darcy’s law, derived in 1856 from experimentation by the French engineer Henri Darcy, permits quantification of water flow through porous media. The law states that the rate of flow Q of a fluid through a porous layer of medium (e.g., a sand bed) is directly proportional to the area A of the layer and to the difference Δh between the fluid heads at the inlet and outlet faces of the layer and is inversely proportional to the thickness L of the layer. Expressed analytically,
where K is a constant characteristic of the medium. The term K for a porous rock medium is the volume of fluid of unit viscosity passing through a unit cross section of the rock in unit time under the action of a unit pressure gradient; this characteristic is called permeability. The permeability of a rock is dependent on the geometric properties of the rock, such as porosity, shape and size distribution of constituent rock grains, and degree of cementation of the rock. Permeabilities of rocks vary greatly. Unconsolidated sands may have permeabilities measured in hundreds of darcys, whereas consolidated sands that will transmit reasonable amounts of fluid have permeabilities of 0.01 to 1 darcy. A rough idea of the meaning of one darcy of permeability (which equals 9.869 × 10−12 square metre [1.261 × 10−11 square foot]) can be obtained by imagining a cube of sand one foot on a side. If the sand has a permeability of one darcy, approximately one barrel of water per day will pass through the one-foot cube with a one-pound pressure head. The general equation of Darcy can be modified to express flow in both the unsaturated zone and the saturated groundwater zone.
Groundwater is constantly in motion. When a lake or stream intersects the groundwater table, groundwater communicates directly with these bodies of water. If the groundwater table is higher than the stream or lake level, a pressure head will develop such that the groundwater flows into the water body; conversely, if the groundwater table is lower than the river or lake level, the pressure gradient induces flow into the groundwater. Most groundwater ultimately reaches the channels of surface streams and rivers and flows to the sea. On the average, groundwater contributes to total river runoff about 30 percent of its water on a global basis.
Water runoff from the land surface is that part of precipitation which eventually appears in perennial or intermittent surface streams. Streamflow-generation mechanisms have been studied for several decades, and there is now considerable knowledge regarding rainfall runoff processes and their controls. This understanding is the result of both careful observations from field experiments and the heuristic simulations of hypothetical realities with rigorous mathematical models. The discharge measured at the downstream end of a channel reach is supplied by channel inflow at the upstream end of the reach and by the lateral inflows that enter the channel from the hillslope along the reach. The lateral inflows may arrive at the stream in one of three forms: (1) groundwater flow, (2) subsurface storm flow, or (3) overland flow.
Groundwater flow provides the base flow component of streams that sustains their flow between storms. The “flashy” response of streamflow to individual precipitation events may be ascribed to either subsurface storm flow or overland flow. Under intense rainfall events during which the surface soil layer becomes saturated to some depth, water is able to migrate through “preferred pathways” rapidly enough to deliver contributions to the stream during the peak runoff period. The conditions for subsurface storm flow are quite restrictive. The mechanism is most likely to be operative on steep, humid, forested hillslopes with very permeable surface soils.
Overland flow is generated at a point on a hillslope only after surface ponding takes place. Ponding cannot occur until the surface soil layers become saturated. It is now widely recognized that surface saturation can occur because of two quite distinct mechanisms—specifically, Horton overland flow (named for American hydraulic engineer and hydrologist Robert E. Horton) and Dunne overland flow (named for British hydrologist Thomas Dunne).
The former classic mechanism is for a precipitation rate that exceeds the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the surface soil. A moisture content versus depth profile during such a rainfall event will show moisture contents that increase at the surface as a function of time. At some point in time the surface becomes saturated, and an inverted zone of saturation begins to propagate downward into the soil. It is at this time that the infiltration rate drops below the rainfall rate and overland flow is generated. The time is called the ponding time. The necessary conditions for the generation of overland flow by the Horton mechanism are (1) a rainfall rate greater than the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil and (2) a rainfall duration longer than the required ponding time for a given initial moisture profile. Horton overland flow is generated from partial areas of the hillslope where surface hydraulic conductivities are lowest.
In Dunne overland flow, the precipitation rate is less than the saturated hydraulic conductivity, and the initial water table is shallow or there is a shallow impeding layer. Surface saturation occurs because of a rising water table; ponding and overland flow occur at a time when no further soil moisture storage is available. The Dunne mechanism is more common to near-channel areas. Dunne overland flow is generated from partial areas of the hillslope where water tables are shallowest. Both Horton and Dunne mechanisms result in variable source areas that expand and contract through wet and dry periods.
Total river discharge and the chemistry of the discharge vary from continent to continent; some continents are wetter and some drier than the world average, but the deviations are not extreme. The runoff per unit area from Asia and Europe is almost exactly equal to the world average; it is a little lower in Africa and North America; and it is considerably higher in South America. Antarctica is frozen and Australia is arid, and so they contribute little runoff. Also, since their areas are relatively small, they do not affect the global runoff average significantly. The waters draining the continents have quite different chemistries; those from Europe are very rich in calcium and bicarbonates, whereas those from Africa and South America are not. North American and Asian rivers are somewhat intermediate in their concentrations of these dissolved constituents. Such differences in composition reflect a variety of factors, including runoff, temperature, and relief, but certainly the bulk composition of the continental rocks in contact with these waters and their underground sources play a major role. The surface rocks of Europe are rich in carbonates, and those of South America are not; the latter are dominated by sediments rich in silicate minerals.
The chemistry of groundwater and river runoff is being modified by human activities on a global scale. The natural dissolved riverine input of major constituents to the oceans already has been increased by more than 10 percent because of human activities. In the case of sodium, chlorine, and sulfate, the increases are as high as 30 percent. In the United States alone, total water use is equivalent to one-third of total runoff, with about 2 percent of the water used coming from underground wells. In the southwestern region of the country, water supplies have been tapped heavily and in some areas have been exhausted with no hope of replacement. This extensive use of fresh waters in the United States and throughout the globe makes them particularly susceptible to pollution. Leachates from fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides are found in some freshwater bodies; toxins or excessive amounts of certain inorganic or organic chemicals are present; radioactive elements have been detected; and some surface water bodies have had their salinities increased dramatically, rendering them useless for human consumption. It is therefore imperative that countries closely monitor the use of freshwater systems and promote their conservation.