Impact of human activities on the hydrosphere

Eutrophication

Historically, aquatic systems have been classified as oligotrophic or eutrophic. Oligotrophic waters are poorly fed by the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus and have low concentrations of these constituents. There is thus low production of organic matter by photosynthesis in such waters. By contrast, eutrophic waters are well supplied with nutrients and generally have high concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus and, correspondingly, large concentrations of plankton owing to high biological productivity. The waters of such aquatic systems are usually murky, and lakes and coastal marine systems may be oxygen-depleted at depth. The process of eutrophication is defined as high biological productivity resulting from increased input of nutrients or organic matter into aquatic systems. For lakes, this increased biological productivity usually leads to decreased lake volume because of the accumulation of organic detritus. Natural eutrophication occurs as aquatic systems fill in with organic matter; it is distinct from cultural eutrophication, which is caused by human intervention. The latter is characteristic of aquatic systems that have been artificially enriched by excess nutrients and organic matter from sewage, agriculture, and industry. Naturally eutrophic lakes may produce 75–250 grams of carbon per square metre per year, whereas those lakes experiencing eutrophication because of human activities can support 75–750 grams per square metre per year. Commonly, culturally eutrophic aquatic systems may exhibit extremely low oxygen concentrations in bottom waters. This is particularly true of stratified systems, as, for instance, lakes during summer where concentrations of molecular oxygen may reach levels of less than about one milligram per litre—a threshold for various biological and chemical processes.

Aquatic systems may change from oligotrophic to eutrophic, or the rate of eutrophication of a natural eutrophic system may be accelerated by the addition of nutrients and organic matter due to human activities. The process of cultural eutrophication, however, can be reversed if the excess nutrient and organic matter supply is shut off.

Not only do freshwater aquatic systems undergo cultural eutrophication, but coastal marine systems also may be affected by this process. On a global scale, the input by rivers of organic matter to the oceans today is twice the input in prehuman times, and the flux of nitrogen, together with that of phosphorus, has more than doubled. This excess loading of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus is leading to cultural eutrophication of marine systems. In several polluted eastern U.S. estuaries (e.g., Chesapeake and Delaware bays) and in some estuaries of western Europe (e.g., the Scheldt of Belgium and the Netherlands), all of the dissolved silica brought into the estuarine waters by rivers is removed by phytoplankton growth (primarily diatoms) resulting from excess fluxes of nutrients and organic matter. In the North Sea there is now a deficiency of silica and an excess of nitrogen and phosphorus, which in turn has led to a decrease in diatom productivity and an increase in cyanobacteria productivity—a biotic change brought about by cultural eutrophication.

Acid rain

The emission of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides to the atmosphere by human activities—primarily fossil-fuel burning—has led to the acidification of rain and freshwater aquatic systems. Acid rain is a worldwide problem and has been well documented for eastern North America and the countries of western Europe.

Acid rain is defined as precipitation with a pH of less than 5.2 that results from reactions involving gases other than carbon dioxide. The overall reactions that produce such precipitation are those of the equations

Average pH can be calculated as the −log a_H⁺ (a_H⁺ is activity of the hydrogen ion). A water chemistry study examining precipitation over the eastern United States for the period October 1979 through September 1980 revealed that low pH values were a result of equilibration of rainwater with the atmospheric acid gases of carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur. Equilibration only with atmospheric carbon dioxide would give a pH of 5.7. The significantly lower values are a result of reactions with nitrogen- and sulfur-bearing gaseous atmospheric components derived primarily from fossil-fuel burning sources.

Nitrate and sulfate concentrations in precipitation over the eastern United States are strongly correlated with pH—the lower the pH of rain, the higher the concentrations of nitrate and sulfate. Such low pH values and increased nitrate and sulfate concentrations were observed in the rains of western Europe and North America until the late 20th century. The pH values of precipitation in these regions have increased significantly since then because of strict air quality regulations. Other parts of the world that have industrialized since the late 20th century without enacting adequate air pollution controls, such as China, experienced similar pH declines in precipitation.

Wet and dry deposition also removes the hydrogen ion produced in the rain by the oxidation and hydrolysis of these acid gases. This excess hydrogen ion can bring about the acidification of freshwater aquatic systems, particularly those with little buffer capacity (e.g., lakes situated in crystalline rock terrains). Furthermore, the lower pH values of rainwater, and consequently of soil water, can lead to increased mobilization of aluminum. Acidification of freshwater lakes in the eastern United States and southeastern Canada and increased aluminum concentrations in their waters are thought to be responsible for major changes in the ecosystems of the lakes. In particular, many lakes of this region lack substantial fish populations today, even though they supported large numbers of fish in the early 1900s. Acid rain also may be among the factors responsible for damage to the major forests and soils of the eastern United States and western Europe.