Light as electromagnetic radiation
In spite of theoretical and experimental advances in the first half of the 19th century that established the wave properties of light, the nature of light was not yet revealed—the identity of the wave oscillations remained a mystery. This situation dramatically changed in the 1860s when the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell, in a watershed theoretical treatment, unified the fields of electricity, magnetism, and optics. In his formulation of electromagnetism, Maxwell described light as a propagating wave of electric and magnetic fields. More generally, he predicted the existence of electromagnetic radiation: coupled electric and magnetic fields traveling as waves at a speed equal to the known speed of light. In 1888 German physicist Heinrich Hertz succeeded in demonstrating the existence of long-wavelength electromagnetic waves and showed that their properties are consistent with those of the shorter-wavelength visible light.
Electric and magnetic fields
The subjects of electricity and magnetism were well developed by the time Maxwell began his synthesizing work. English physician William Gilbert initiated the careful study of magnetic phenomena in the late 16th century. In the late 1700s an understanding of electric phenomena was pioneered by Benjamin Franklin, Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, and others. Siméon-Denis Poisson, Pierre-Simon Laplace, and Carl Friedrich Gauss developed powerful mathematical descriptions of electrostatics and magnetostatics that stand to the present time. The first connection between electric and magnetic effects was discovered by Danish physicist Hans Christian Ørsted in 1820 when he found that electric currents produce magnetic forces. Soon after, French physicist André-Marie Ampère developed a mathematical formulation (Ampère’s law) relating currents to magnetic effects. In 1831 the great English experimentalist Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction, in which a moving magnet (more generally, a changing magnetic flux) induces an electric current in a conducting circuit.
Faraday’s conception of electric and magnetic effects laid the groundwork for Maxwell’s equations. Faraday visualized electric charges as producing fields that extend through space and transmit electric and magnetic forces to other distant charges. The notion of electric and magnetic fields is central to the theory of electromagnetism, and so it requires some explanation. A field is used to represent any physical quantity whose value changes from one point in space to another. For example, the temperature of Earth’s atmosphere has a definite value at every point above the surface of Earth; to specify the atmospheric temperature completely thus requires specifying a distribution of numbers—one for each spatial point. The temperature “field” is simply a mathematical accounting of those numbers; it may be expressed as a function of the spatial coordinates. The values of the temperature field can also vary with time; therefore, the field is more generally expressed as a function of spatial coordinates and time: T(x, y, z, t), where T is the temperature field, x, y, and z are the spatial coordinates, and t is the time.
Temperature is an example of a scalar field; its complete specification requires only one number for each spatial point. Vector fields, on the other hand, describe physical quantities that have a direction and magnitude at each point in space. A familiar example is the velocity field of a fluid. Electric and magnetic fields are also vector fields; the electric field is written as E(x, y, z, t) and the magnetic field as B(x, y, z, t).
Maxwell’s equations
In the early 1860s, Maxwell completed a study of electric and magnetic phenomena. He presented a mathematical formulation in which the values of the electric and magnetic fields at all points in space can be calculated from a knowledge of the sources of the fields. By Faraday’s time, it was known that electric charges are the source of electric fields and that electric currents (charges in motion) are the source of magnetic fields. Faraday’s electromagnetic induction showed that there is a second source of electric fields—changing magnetic fields. In a significant step in the development of his theory, Maxwell postulated that changing electric fields are sources of magnetic fields. In its modern form, Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory is expressed as four partial differential equations for the fields E and B. Known as Maxwell’s equations, these four statements relating the fields to their sources, along with the expression for the forces exerted by the fields on electric charges, constitute the whole of classical electromagnetism.
Electromagnetic waves and the electromagnetic spectrum
Electromagnetic waves
A manipulation of the four equations for the electric and magnetic fields led Maxwell to wave equations for the fields, the solutions of which are traveling harmonic waves. Though the mathematical treatment is detailed, the underlying origin of the waves can be understood qualitatively: changing magnetic fields produce electric fields, and changing electric fields produce magnetic fields. This implies the possibility of an electromagnetic field in which a changing electric field continually gives rise to a changing magnetic field, and vice versa.
Electromagnetic waves do not represent physical displacements that propagate through a medium like mechanical sound and water waves; instead, they describe propagating oscillations in the strengths of electric and magnetic fields. Maxwell’s wave equation showed that the speed of the waves, labeled c, is determined by a combination of constants in the laws of electrostatics and magnetostatics—in modern notation:
where ε0, the permittivity of free space, has an experimentally determined value of 8.85 × 10−12 square coulomb per newton square metre, and μ0, the magnetic permeability of free space, has a value of 1.26 × 10−6 newton square seconds per square coulomb. The calculated speed, about 3 × 108 metres per second, agreed with the known speed of light. In an 1864 lecture before the Royal Society of London, “A Dynamical Theory of the Electro-Magnetic Field,” Maxwell asserted:
We have strong reason to conclude that light itself—including radiant heat and other radiation, if any—is an electromagnetic disturbance in the form of waves propagated through the electro-magnetic field according to electro-magnetic laws.
Maxwell’s achievement ranks as one of the greatest advances of physics. For the physicist of the late 19th century, the study of light became a study of an electromagnetic phenomenon—the fields of electricity, magnetism, and optics were unified in one grand design. While an understanding of light has undergone some profound changes since the 1860s as a result of the discovery of light’s quantum mechanical nature, Maxwell’s electromagnetic wave model remains completely adequate for many purposes.