subarachnoid hemorrhage

subarachnoid hemorrhage, bleeding into the space between the two innermost protective coverings surrounding the brain, the pia mater and the arachnoid mater. A subarachnoid hemorrhage most often occurs as the result of significant head trauma and is usually seen in the setting of skull fractures or injuries to the brain itself. Some authorities prefer to classify traumatic subarachnoid hemorrhages as a separate disorder from those that occur spontaneously as the result of a ruptured aneurysm or other internal pathology. Clinically, the two types of subarachnoid hemorrhage may be difficult to distiguish in the absence of clear indication of trauma. A subarachnoid hemorrhage is typically symptomatic, with headache and an alteration of consciousness being common. Once identified, the subarachnoid hemorrhage requires immediate medical attention, and quick intervention is necessary to improve the chance of a positive outcome.

Anatomy of the skull and brain

The brain is protected inside the skull by three separate layers of tissue (meninges). The innermost layer, the pia mater, is a thin and delicate membrane that lies on the surface of the brain. The second layer, the arachnoid mater, covers the brain and pia mater but does not follow the contour of the involutions of the brain. The outermost layer, the dura mater, provides a thicker and tougher layer of protection.

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These layers define three potential spaces for blood to collect: the epidural space, between the skull and the dura; the subdural space, between the dura and the arachnoid layer; and the subarachnoid space, between the arachnoid and pia layers. Each has its own potential sources of hemorrhage. The pia mater is too closely adhered to the brain and too fragile to act as a barrier for blood, and, therefore, there is no potential space between the pia and the brain for a hemorrhage to form. A subarachnoid hemorrhage is simply defined as the presence of blood in the subarachnoid space.

Mechanism of injury

The subarachnoid space is prone to blood collection whenever there is damage to any of the cerebral blood vessels that travel beneath the arachnoid layer, in close proximity to the surface of the brain. Subarachnoid hemorrhages often occur spontaneously. In these cases, approximately 85% of the hemorrhages are the result of a ruptured cerebral aneurysm. Other causes of spontaneous subarachnoid hemorrhage include arteriovenous malformations, anticoagulation therapy, and the use of certain illicit drugs such as cocaine.

Traumatic subarachnoid hemorrhage is most often the result of a significant mechanical force applied to the skull. Accompanying skull fractures are common, as are other types of bleeding such as epidural and intracerebral hematomas.

Signs and symptoms

In the setting of a spontaneous subarachnoid hemorrhage, the hallmark symptom is known as the “thunderclap headache.” This headache occurs quite suddenly and is severe. It is often described by patients as feeling like somebody hit them on the head with a blunt object. The sudden nature and severity of this headache are distinct and should always warrant consideration of a subarachnoid hemorrhage as the cause. Other possible symptoms include nausea, seizures, vasospasm, and loss of consciousness.

When a subarachnoid hemorrhage is secondary to head trauma, there is typically a constellation of symptoms similar to that seen in all serious head injuries that includes confusion or loss of consciousness, memory loss, dizziness or unsteadiness, lack of coordination, nausea and/or vomiting, or sleepiness. If the patient is lucid enough to describe symptoms, he or she will typically describe an extremely severe headache. While the subarachnoid hemorrhage may not be directly responsible for neurological deficits such as numbness or weakness on one side of the body, these signs may be present as a result of concurrent injury to the brain.

Clinical evaluation and diagnostic tests

When head trauma is suspected or cannot be ruled out, first responders and emergency room doctors assess key factors such as the possibility of cervical spine trauma, the victim’s consciousness level, the presence of neurological abnormalities, and the possibility of skull fractures. Any of these factors may indicate the need for further diagnostics, including those testing for subarachnoid hemorrhage.

The presence of a subarachnoid hemorrhage is usually confirmed with a computed tomography (CT) scan of the head. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain can also be used. While MRI may provide more information regarding damage to the brain itself, it is more expensive, requires more time, and is not available at every medical facility. The initial diagnosis, therefore, is typically made with a CT scan. If the clinical suspicion is high enough but the CT of the head is normal, a lumbar puncture can be performed as an alternative method to establish the diagnosis. If a subarachnoid hemorrhage is present, the cerebrospinal fluid that is obtained via the spinal tap will almost always have evidence of blood or blood products. In the case of spontaneous subarachnoid hemorrhages, a cerebral angiogram—an intravenous, catheter-based procedure—is the most useful test for establishing the source of the bleed.

Management

In cases of spontaneous hemorrhage, medications may be administered to reduce blood pressure and thus intracranial pressure. Ruptured aneurysms are sealed by surgical clips or the insertion of surgical coils.

In the setting of trauma, the cause is likely known (a direct force to the skull). In these cases, there are usually concurrent injuries that need attention, such as a skull fracture. Neurosurgical consultation is required to determine the next steps in management, which could include a catheter-based procedure, surgery, or the placement of a device to monitor the pressure inside the skull, as well as supportive medication.

Regardless of the initial cause, blood in the subarachnoid space can cause the surrounding arteries to spasm, increasing the chances of further damage to the brain. Medicines can be used to help prevent this phenomenon, and further diagnostic tests can help monitor the cerebral vasculature. Hydrocephalus caused by the buildup of fluid may be alleviated by the insertion of drains.

Prevention and risk factors

Some studies have shown that screening for aneurysms is warranted if there is a family history of them. If an aneurysm is identified, it may then be evaluated further for the possibility of performing a procedure to reduce the risk of rupture in the future. These decisions are best made carefully and after direct consultation with a vascular neurosurgeon. Women experience subarachnoid hemorrhages more frequently than men. Smoking and overconsumption of alcohol have been identified as risk factors as well. Athletes and labourers who are at risk of head injury should wear appropriate protective head coverings.