20th-century international relations - War aims, Peace feelers | Britannica

20th-century international relations

Table of Contents

Introduction
The roots of World War I, 1871–1914
- The Bismarckian system, 1871–90
  - The era of the great powers
  - The nature of the German state
- The impact of industrialism and imperialism
  - Patterns of population
  - Industry, technology, and trade
  - The New Imperialism
- Completing the alliance systems, 1890–1907
  - Germany’s new course
  - The threats to Britain’s empire
  - The Triple Entente
- Militarism and pacifism before 1914
  - Anxiety and the arms race
  - The peace movements
- The Balkan crises and the outbreak of war, 1907–14
  - Growing tensions and German isolation
  - The final crisis
- The war-guilt question
  - The search for causes
  - The centrality of the Habsburg monarchy
World War I, 1914–18
- Military stalemate and new belligerents
  - From grand plans to the trenches
  - The war at sea and abroad
  - Efforts to break the stalemate
- War mobilization at home and abroad
  - The invention of total war
  - The weapon of morale
- War aims and peace feelers
  - War aims of the belligerents
  - Attitude of the United States
- The crises of 1917
  - War-weariness and diplomacy
  - The Russian Revolution
- Last battles and armistice
  - Russia’s withdrawal from the war
  - The eastern minorities
  - Germany’s final battles
- The collapse of the old order
Peacemaking, 1919–22
- Competing visions of stability
  - The idealist vision
  - The realist vision
- The Versailles Diktat
  - Hammering out the treaty
  - Reaction to the treaty
- The West and the Russian Civil War
  - Bolshevik diplomacy
  - Allied approaches to the Bolsheviks
  - Consolidation of the Revolution
- Central Europe and the Middle East
  - The reorganization of central Europe
  - The reorganization of the Middle East
- The new balance in East Asia
  - The three Pacific powers
  - The organization of power in the Pacific
- The postwar guilt question
A fragile stability, 1922–29
- A broken world
  - The failure of democratic consensus
  - The search for a new stability
- Reparations, security, and the German question
  - The continuing problem of Germany
  - German politics and reparations
  - Allied politics and reparations
- The agreements of mid-decade
  - Reparations agreements
  - Security and the League of Nations
- Italy and east-central Europe
  - Fascism and Italian reality
  - Fascist diplomacy
- The invention of Soviet foreign policy
  - Lenin’s diplomacy
  - Stalin’s diplomacy
- The United States, Britain, and world markets
  - U.S. leverage in world markets
  - U.S. leverage in Latin-American affairs
- The Locarno era and the dream of disarmament
The origins of World War II, 1929–39
- The economic blizzard
  - Political consequences of the Depression
  - Failures of the League
- The rise of Hitler and fall of Versailles
  - Failure of the German Republic
  - European responses to Nazism
  - Italian aggression
  - The first German move
- British appeasement and American isolationism
  - The rationale of appeasement
  - The civil war in Spain
  - The return of U.S. isolationism
  - Japan’s aggression in China
- Anschluss and the Munich Pact
  - The German-Austrian union
  - The taking of Czechoslovakia
- Technology, strategy, and the outbreak of war
  - Rearmament and tactical planning
  - Poland and Soviet anxiety
- Hitler’s war or Chamberlain’s?
World War II, 1939–45
- The last European war, 1939–41
  - Poland and the northern war
  - The Western front
  - The Eastern front
- Origins of American belligerence
  - From neutrality to active aid
  - Japan’s challenge
- The turning point, 1942
- The economic and scientific wars
  - The German economy and the Jews
  - Strategic bombing
  - Allied economic management
  - Science and technology in wartime
- Strategy and diplomacy of the Grand Alliance
  - Allied strategy to the fall of Italy
  - Early war-aims agreement
- The defeat of Nazi Germany
  - The Allied invasion of Europe
  - Soviet advances in the east
  - The final Allied agreements
- The defeat of Japan
  - The encirclement of Japan
  - The atomic decision
The coming of the Cold War, 1945–57
- The Cold War guilt question
- Wasteland: the world after 1945
  - The ruin of Europe and Japan
  - U.S. vision of reconstruction
  - The end of East–West cooperation
- The Cold War in Europe
  - Peace treaties and territorial agreements
  - Atomic energy
  - The economic battle with Communism
  - The division of Europe
- The Cold War in the Middle East and Asia
  - The creation of Israel
  - South Asia
  - The Chinese civil war
  - The Korean War
  - Asian wars and the deterrence strategy
- The pace of European integration
  - The nature and role of Germany
  - Postwar European recovery
  - The Suez Crisis
- Nuclear weapons and the balance of terror
  - The race for nuclear arms
  - Arms control and defense
Total Cold War and the diffusion of power, 1957–72
- The world after Sputnik
  - Soviet progress and American reaction
  - The Sino-Soviet split
  - Soviet diplomatic offensive
  - Decolonization and development
  - Latin-American problems
- Superpower relations in the 1960s
  - Policies of the Kennedy administration
  - The Cuban missile crisis
  - Renewed U.S.–Soviet cooperation
- The Europe of the fatherlands
  - Great Britain and decolonization
  - France’s independent course
- Asia beneath the superpowers
  - The Six-Day War
  - China, India, and Pakistan
- The war in Southeast Asia
  - Cold War assumptions and the quagmire
  - The conduct and cost of the war
- Nixon, Kissinger, and the détente experiment
  - Détente as realism
  - Scaling back U.S. commitments
  - The opening to China and Ostpolitik
  - Arms-limitation negotiations
  - End of the Vietnam War
Dependence and disintegration in the global village, 1973–87
- The decline of détente
  - The distraction of Watergate
  - Events in Southeast Asia and Africa
  - American uncertainty
  - Postmortem
- The “arc of crisis”
  - Palestinian terrorism and diplomacy
  - The Iranian revolution
  - The Soviets in Afghanistan
- Rhetorical cold war revived
  - The Reagan administration
  - Renewal of arms control
  - Regional crises
- Latin-American upheavals
  - Marxism and the Cuban role
  - Nicaragua and El Salvador
- The world political economy
The end of the Cold War
- Gorbachev and the Soviet “new thinking”
- 1989: annus mirabilis
  - Liberalization and struggle in Communist countries
  - Aftermath of the breakup
- The reunification of Germany
  - From skepticism to reality
  - Why the Soviet retreat?
- Disengagement in the Third World
  - The Philippines and Central America
  - Afghanistan
  - The Middle East
- The first post-Cold War crisis: war in the Persian Gulf
  - UN coalition and ultimatum
  - Soviet unrest at home and diplomacy abroad
  - The ground war
- The collapse of the Soviet Union
The quest for a new world order, 1991–95
- Prospects for peace
  - The Middle East
  - South Africa
- Assertive multilateralism in theory and practice
  - Three tests
  - Developments in free trade
- Europe adrift after the Cold War
  - Relations with Russia
  - The role of NATO
  - The Balkans
Toward a new millennium
- Conflict and peacemaking, 1996–2000
- Tension and cooperation at the turn of the century

References & Edit History

Images & Videos

Alfred Thayer Mahan

What were the consequences of the Treaty of Versailles?

Track the League of Nations' continual failure to check via diplomacy the Axis powers' pre-World War II rise

Examine the effects of U.S. Neutrality Acts on pre-World War II international relations

Hitler's final days in Berlin, April 1945

Adolf Hitler's death and its impact on Nazi Germany

Deciding Germany's future: The Potsdam Conference

Postwar Germany: Surviving and rebuilding after 1945

East and West German armies during the Cold War

Cuban missile crisis: The world on the brink of war

For Students

Alfred Thayer Mahan

international relations summary

Read Next

Text Top Secret typed on retro typewriter

How Secret Is Top Secret?

A human Inuit skull in a stone chambered cairn in Ilulissat in Greenland. These ancient graves are pre christian and are at least 2000

14 Tough Questions Answered

Battle of the Alamo from "Texas: An Epitome of Texas History from the Filibustering and Revolutionary Eras to the Independence of the Republic, 1897. Texas Revolution, Texas revolt, Texas independence, Texas history.

6 Wars of Independence

Ethel Rosenberg arrested in August 1950. Photograph dated Aug. 8, 1950. American civilians executed for espionage. Spies, communists, Julius Rosenberg

Spies Like Us: 10 Famous Names in the Espionage Game

Iraqi Army Soldiers from the 9th Mechanized Division learning to operate and maintain M1A1 Abrams Main Battle Tanks at Besmaya Combat Training Center, Baghdad, Iraq, 2011. Military training. Iraq war. U.S. Army

8 Deadliest Wars of the 21st Century

Discover

Vietnam War. U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson awards the Distinguished Service Cross to First Lieutenant Marty A. Hammer, during a visit to military personnel, Cam Ranh Bay, South Vietnam, October 26, 1966. President Johnson

Vietnam War Timeline

African Americans demonstrating for voting rights in front of the White House as police and others watch, March 12, 1965. One sign reads, "We demand the right to vote everywhere." Voting Rights Act, civil rights.

Timeline of the American Civil Rights Movement

Albert Einstein in Washington, D.C. c. 1921-1923. Physicist

The Solar Eclipse That Made Albert Einstein a Science Celebrity

Young men throw balloons and glitter from above the mosque at the celebration Eid Al-Fitr after prayers playing with balloons outside of Al-seddeeq mosque, Al-Mansourah, Egypt. 17 July 2015.

solar eclipse, sun, moon, astronomy, space

How Do You Tell the Difference Between Total, Annular, Solar, and Lunar Eclipses?

In this aerial photo, structures are damaged and destroyed October 15, 2005 in Balakot, Pakistan. It is estimated that 90% of the city of Balakot was leveled by the earthquake. The death toll in the 7.6 magnitude earthquake that struck northern Pakistan on October 8, 2005 is believed to be 38,000 with at least 1,300 more dead in Indian Kashmir. SEE CONTENT NOTES.

6 of the World’s Deadliest Natural Disasters

Julius Caesar in full Gaius Julius Caesar (100? BCE-44 BCE) statue in Rimini, Italy. Roman general and statesman and dictator

The Time Julius Caesar Was Captured by Pirates

For what were the nations of Europe making such total and mortal commitments? In public each government insisted it was fighting first in self-defense, then for victory and some hallowed national goal like naval security for Britain, Alsace-Lorraine for France, or Constantinople for Russia. But in private, now that peacetime constraints were torn off, each indulged greater ambitions. German war aims took shape at once in the September Program of Bethmann. While debate exists over how much this document reflected Bethmann’s real views, it did come to represent the prevailing view of the military, which in turn came to speak ...(100 of 138320 words)

Access the full article

Help support true facts by becoming a member.