History of Europe - Romanticism, Enlightenment, Revolution | Britannica

history of Europe

Table of Contents

Introduction
Prehistory
- Paleolithic settlement
  - Earliest developments
  - Upper Paleolithic developments
- Mesolithic adaptations
- The Neolithic Period
  - The adoption of farming
  - The late Neolithic Period
    - Agricultural intensification
    - Social change
  - The Indo-Europeans
The Metal Ages
- The chronology of the Metal Ages
- General characteristics
  - The Copper Age
  - The Bronze Age
  - The Iron Age
- Social and economic developments
  - Control over resources
  - Changing centres of wealth
  - Prestige and status
  - The relationship between nature and culture
  - Rituals, religion, and art
- The people of the Metal Ages
Greeks, Romans, and barbarians
- Greeks
- Romans
- Barbarian migrations and invasions
  - The Germans and Huns
  - The reconfiguration of the empire
The Middle Ages
- The idea of the Middle Ages
  - The term and concept before the 18th century
  - Enlightenment scorn and Romantic admiration
  - The Middle Ages in modern historiography
- Chronology
- Late antiquity: the reconfiguration of the Roman world
  - The organization of late imperial Christianity
  - Kings and peoples
  - The great commission
  - The bishops of Rome
  - The Mediterranean world divided
- The Frankish ascendancy
  - The Merovingian dynasty
  - Charlemagne and the Carolingian dynasty
  - Carolingian decline and its consequences
- Growth and innovation
  - Demographic and agricultural growth
  - Technological innovations
  - Urban growth
- Reform and renewal
- The consequences of reform
  - The transformation of thought and learning
  - The structure of ecclesiastical and devotional life
    - Ecclesiastical organization
    - Devotional life
  - From persuasion to coercion: The emergence of a new ecclesiastical discipline
  - Christianity, Judaism, and Islam
- From territorial principalities to territorial monarchies
  - The office and person of the king
  - Instruments of royal governance
  - The three orders
- Crisis, recovery, and resilience: Did the Middle Ages end?
The Renaissance
- The Italian Renaissance
  - Urban growth
  - Wars of expansion
  - Italian humanism
    - Growth of literacy
    - Language and eloquence
    - The humanities
    - Classical scholarship
    - Arts and letters
  - Renaissance thought
- The northern Renaissance
  - Political, economic, and social background
  - Northern humanism
  - Christian mystics
  - The growth of vernacular literature
- Renaissance science and technology
The emergence of modern Europe, 1500–1648
- Economy and society
  - The economic background
  - Demographics
  - Trade and the “Atlantic revolution”
  - Prices and inflation
  - Landlords and peasants
  - Protoindustrialization
  - Growth of banking and finance
  - Political and cultural influences on the economy
  - Aspects of early modern society
- Politics and diplomacy
  - The state of European politics
    - Discovery of the New World
    - Nation-states and dynastic rivalries
    - Turkey and eastern Europe
  - Reformation and Counter-Reformation
  - Diplomacy in the age of the Reformation
  - The Wars of Religion
  - The Thirty Years’ War
    - The crisis in Germany
    - The crisis in the Habsburg lands
    - The triumph of the Catholics, 1619–29
    - The crisis of the war, 1629–35
    - The European war in Germany, 1635–45
    - Making peace, 1645–48
    - Problems not solved by the war
    - Problems solved by the war
The great age of monarchy, 1648–1789
- Order from disorder
- The human condition
  - Population
  - Climate
  - War
  - Health and sickness
  - Poverty
- The organization of society
  - Corporate society
  - Nobles and gentlemen
  - The bourgeoisie
  - The peasantry
- The economic environment
  - Innovation and development
  - Early capitalism
  - The old industrial order
- Absolutism
  - Sovereigns and estates
  - Major forms of absolutism
    - France
    - The empire
    - Prussia
  - Variations on the absolutist theme
    - Sweden
    - Denmark
    - Spain
    - Portugal
    - Britain
    - Holland
    - Russia
- The Enlightenment
  - Sources of Enlightenment thought
  - The role of science and mathematics
  - The influence of Locke
  - The proto-Enlightenment
  - History and social thought
  - The language of the Enlightenment
  - Man and society
  - The Encyclopédie
  - Rousseau and his followers
  - The Aufklärung
  - The Enlightenment throughout Europe
Revolution and the growth of industrial society, 1789–1914
- The Industrial Revolution
  - Economic effects
  - Social upheaval
- The age of revolution
  - The French Revolution
  - The Napoleonic era
  - The conservative reaction
  - The Revolutions of 1848
- Romanticism and Realism
  - The legacy of the French Revolution
    - Cultural nationalism
    - Simplicity and truth
    - Populism
    - Nature of the changes
    - Napoleon’s influence
  - General character of the Romantic movement
  - Romanticism in literature and the arts
    - Drama
    - Painting
    - Sculpture and architecture
    - Music
    - Self-analysis
- Early 19th-century social and political thought
  - Postrevolutionary thinking
  - The principle of evolution
  - Science
  - Early 19th-century philosophy
    - Kant
    - Kant’s disciples
  - Religion and its alternatives
    - Scientific positivism
    - The cult of art
  - The middle 19th century
  - Realism and Realpolitik
    - Scientific materialism
    - Victorian morality
    - The advance of democracy
  - Realism in the arts and philosophy
    - Literature
    - Painting and sculpture
    - Popular art
    - Music
    - Summary
- A maturing industrial society
  - The “second industrial revolution”
  - Modifications in social structure
  - The rise of organized labour and mass protests
  - Conditions in eastern Europe
- The emergence of the industrial state
  - Political patterns
  - Changes in government functions
  - Reform and reaction in eastern Europe
  - Diplomatic entanglements
  - The scramble for colonies
  - Prewar diplomacy
- Modern culture
  - Symbolism and Impressionism
  - Aestheticism
  - Naturalism
  - The new century
    - Arts and Crafts movement
    - New trends in technology and science
    - The social sciences
    - Reexamination of the universe
  - The prewar period
European society and culture since 1914
- The Great War and its aftermath
  - The shock of World War I
  - The mood of Versailles
- The interwar years
  - Hopes in Geneva
  - The lottery in Weimar
  - The impact of the slump
  - The trappings of dictatorship
  - The phony peace
- The blast of World War II
- Postwar Europe
  - Planning the peace
  - The United States to the rescue
  - A climate of fear
  - Affluence and its underside
  - The reflux of empire
- Ever closer union?

References & Edit History Related Topics

Images & Videos

Encyclopædia Britannica: first edition, map of Europe

Venus of Willendorf

prehistoric cave painting in Lascaux

Venus of Věstonice

clay model of a wheeled cart

Behold the Athenian Acropolis and Roman Colosseum and drive down Appian Way on the Roman road system

Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry

Read Next

Cleopatra hieroglyphic carving the Ancient Egyptian queen Cleopatra. Wall of the Temple of Horus at Edfu, Egypt.

What Did Cleopatra Look Like?

Globe South America, map

What’s the Difference Between Hispanic and Latino?

Sunset over the Great Pyramids of Giza, Egypt.

Were All Egyptian Pharaohs Buried in Pyramids?

An ancient egyptian hieroglyphic painted carving showing the falcon headed god Horus seated on a throne and holding a golden fly whisk. Before him are the Pharoah Seti and the goddess Isis. Interior wall of the temple to Osiris at Abydos, Egypt.

11 Egyptian Gods and Goddesses

This extremely well preserved Egyptian mummy is that of a man who lived during the Ptolemaic Period. His name, written hastily, can be read as either Pachery or Nenu; in the collection of the Musee du Louvre, Paris, France.

7 Surprising Uses for Mummies

Discover

Black widow spider

9 of the World’s Deadliest Spiders

United States Electoral College votes by state

How Many Electoral College Votes Does Each U.S. State Have?

earthquake. Heavily damaged school in the town of Yingxiu after a major earthquake struck China's Sichuan Province on May 12, 2008.

The 6 Deadliest Earthquakes Since 1950

Aphrodite. Greek mythology. Sculpture. Aphrodite is the Greek goddess of love and beauty.

12 Greek Gods and Goddesses

Periodical Cicada, Adult, Magicicada spp. Requires 17 years to complete development. Nymph splits its skin, and transforms into an adult. Feeds on sap of tree roots. Northern Illinois Brood. This brood is the largest emergence of cicadas anywhere

Why Do Some Cicadas Appear Only Every 17 Years?

VAN, TURKEY - OCTOBER 25: A building and car ruined during the earthquake of Van-Ercis on October 25, 2011 in Van, Turkey. It is 604 killed and 4152 injured in Van-Ercis Earthquake.

What Is an Aftershock?

Two chicks near an egg with a white background (poultry, chick, chickens, birds).

What Do Eggs Have to Do with Easter?

The mention of Waterloo (1815) suggests the need to make clear a number of chronological discrepancies. It has been possible so far to discuss the general shift in the temper of European life without naming fixed points. It sufficed to say “before or after 1789” or “from 1789 to the Napoleonic empire.” However, from now on the generations of culture makers and the dates of some of their works must be duly situated, without on that account losing sight of unities and similarities in the onward march of artistic and intellectual movements. If, for example, one considers the poets called ...(100 of 156573 words)

Access the full article

Help support true facts by becoming a member.